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Elsevier

Books in Agricultural and biological sciences

The Agricultural and Biological Sciences collection advances science-based knowledge for the improvement of animal and plant life and for secure food systems that produce nutritious, novel, sustainable foods with minimal environmental impact. Food Science titles include not only those products from agriculture but all other aspects from food production to nutrition, health and safety, chemistry to security, policy, law and regulation. Biological Sciences address animal behaviour and biodiversity, organismal and evolutionary biology, entomology, marine biology and aquaculture, plant science and forestry.

  • Isozymes V4

    Genetics and Evolution
    • 1st Edition
    • Clement Markert
    • English
    Isozymes, IV: Genetics and Evolution contains manuscripts presented at the Third International Conference on isozymes convened in April 1974 at Yale University. Separating 58 manuscripts into chapters, this book begins by elucidating the usefulness of isozymes as effective markers in studies of various aspects of genetics and evolution. Specific discussions are given to isozymes in evolutionary systematics and isozyme polymorphism maintenance mechanisms viewed from the standpoint of population genetics. This book explains multiple allelism and isozyme diversity in human populations. It also addresses the usefulness of isozyme variants as markers of population movement in man and plant population genetics.

  • Warmed-Over Flavor of Meat

    • 1st Edition
    • Allen J. St. Angelo
    • English
    Warmed-Over Flavor of Meat discusses related problems and issues on warmed-over flavor (WOF) of meat that contributes to a decrease in sale, meat consumption, and production expansion. WOF is old, stale, rancid, and painty flavor and odor of meat, apparently caused by the catalytic oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Comprised of 10 chapters, the book initially describes the mechanisms of metals’ role in the promotion of lipid oxidation. The text also discusses the content and distribution of iron in meat and the evidence concerning the ability of the various forms of iron in meat to promote oxidative degradation of lipids. The subsequent chapters describe the oxidative deterioration in muscle foods and the free radical processes pertinent to autoxidation of foods. A chapter presents evidence for and against heme catalysis of lipid oxidation and the antioxidant role of nitrite in cured meats. The book also considers sensory and instrumental analysis of volatiles and undesirable flavors related to WOF and the isolation and separation of heteroatomic compounds associated with beef flavor. The remaining chapters describe several methodologies for retarding or preventing WOF in meat, focusing on the practical procedure of the Maillard reaction. Lastly, sources of natural antioxidants for meat product preservation are considered. Food scientists, researchers, and manufacturers will find this book invaluable.

  • Viral Insecticides for Biological Control

    • 1st Edition
    • Karl Maramorosch
    • English
    Viral Insecticides for Biological Control focuses on the basic as well as applied aspects of viral insecticides, which have the potential to significantly reduce the current reliance on chemical pesticide technology. This book serves as a guide for the development of means to identify hazardous problems and prevent them. Organized into six parts with a total of 23 chapters, this book describes the taxonomy, nomenclature, identification, physical, biological, as well as chemical characteristics, replication, and pathology of insect viruses. This reference material also explores the dispersal, stability, and utilization of insect viruses as biological control agents. The factors and considerations that must be taken into account when a viral insecticide is sought as a large-scale commercial alternative to other more traditional methods of pest control are also addressed. Because this reference material collates information in this field of interest, it will benefit a wide audience of readers, including researchers, students, and those working directly in crop protection.

  • Aspects of Sponge Biology

    • 1st Edition
    • Frederick Harrison
    • English
    Aspects of Sponge Biology is the result of a symposium about sponge biology held in Albany, New York in May 1975. The symposium not only presents investigations, but also problem areas in the field of sponge biology. This book therefore shows that sponges are a very challenging and untouched subject area for future studies. This book is divided into three major parts, wherein the first part introduces and discusses sponge biology. The introduction and discussion include sponge biology principles, perspectives, and problems. The next two parts discuss cell and development biology, taxonomy, and ecology. Part 2 deals with several topics of the cellular aspect, including an analysis of reproduction in sponge populations and cytochemical studies of connective tissues in sponges. This part also looks into the cytological abnormalities in various normal and transformed cell lines. Part 3 describes the different types of sponge in their various habitats. Sponge feeding mechanisms, ecological factors controlling sponge distribution, and zoogeography of Brazilian marine Demospongiae are also discussed in this part. This book will be of important value to biology students and teachers. Specialists including zoologists, ecologists, comparative physiologists, and biologists will also benefit from this book.

  • Advances in Aquatic Microbiology

    • 1st Edition
    • M.R. Droop
    • English
    Advances in Aquatic Microbiology Volume 1 describes the characteristics of ecological niches for individual microorganisms and the intensities of individual microbiological processes in the course of turnover of various substances in reservoirs. This volume follows Volume 1 of Advances in Microbiology of the Sea book. The opening chapter presents insight to the tradition of Russian limnological microbiology followed by a discussion on conversion of inorganic nitrogen to organic nitrogen, and the microorganisms responsible for assimilatory reactions. The book considers aspects of the reduction of atmospheric dinitrogen and nitrate to ammonia and the incorporation of ammonia into organic compounds. Such considerations will relate particularly to those organisms of significance in aquatic environments. The relations between prey and predator and their significance in the investigation both the behavior of the microorganisms themselves and the prey-predator situation in general are also discussed. Chapter 4 examines how viruses, bacteria, and fungi affect the blue-green algae and the development and regulation of algal blooms. The final two chapters summarize studies in freshwater sediment microbiology and the role of bacteria in water pollution monitoring. This book caters primarily to aquatic microbiologists, but limnological microbiologists, aquatic researchers, scientists, teachers, and students with courses in aquatic microbiology will find this book invaluable.

  • Babesia, Theileria, Myxosporida, Microsporida, Bartonellaceae, Anaplasmataceae, Ehrlichia, and Pneumocystis

    • 1st Edition
    • Julius Kreir
    • English
    Parasitic Protozoa, Volume IV: Babesia, Theileria, Myxosporida, Microsporida, Bartonellaceae, Anaplasmataceae, Ehrlichia, and Pneumocystis covers a wide range of parasites that produce disease in man and animals. This volume contains 10 chapters; each chapter tackles specific parasitic protozoa species. The first two chapters deal with the classification, morphology, life cycle, host-parasite relationship, and diagnosis of Babesia parasite, with a special emphasis on their occurrence in human and in wild and laboratory animals. The remaining chapters discuss the biological, biochemical, genetic, metabolic, and epidemiological aspects of other parasite species, including Theileria, Myxosporida, Microsporida, Bartonella, Grahamella, Aegyptianella, Eperythrozoon, Haemobartonella, Ehrlichiae, and Pneumocystis. This book is of great value to protozoologists, microbiologists, physicians, veterinarians, and research scientists who are interested in diseases produced by the parasites in man and livestock.

  • Internal Anatomy and Physiological Regulation

    • 1st Edition
    • Linda Mantel
    • English
    The Biology of Crustacea, Volume 5: Internal Anatomy and Physiological Regulation is an eight-chapter book that begins with a discussion on the internal anatomy of Crustacea with emphasis on its major organ systems. This volume provides information on the regulation of the composition of hemolymph and provision of energy to tissues. Some chapters deal with the exchange and transport of gases, particularly, on ventilation, perfusion, and oxygen transport. Because this book contains vast background information and perspective on the subject matter, it will be a valuable source for zoologists, paleontologists, ecologists, physiologists, endocrinologists, morphologists, pathologists, and marine biologists. It will be an essential reference work for institutional libraries as well.

  • Molecular And Cellular Approaches To The Control Of Proliferation And Differentiation

    • 1st Edition
    • Gary Stein
    • English
    Molecular and Cellular Approaches to the Control of Proliferation and Differentiation focuses on molecular and cellular approaches used to control cell proliferation and differentiation. This book discusses the basic mechanisms involved in the regulation of cell growth, emphasizing the coupling of proliferation and the progressive expression of several specific cellular phenotypes. This text is organized into three sections encompassing 12 chapters and begins with an introduction to cell proliferation and how it is regulated by growth factors and nuclear protooncogenes in cell proliferation. The book then discusses mitosis and its investigation by means of the cell biological, genetic, biochemical, and immunological approaches, along with the model for mitotic regulation. The next chapters examine the manner in which cell structure is involved in the selective expression of genes associated with proliferation and differentiation and, how gene expression in response modulates both intracellular (nuclear matrix and cytoskeleton) and extracellular (extracellular matrix) architecture. The extent to which common signaling mechanisms and regulatory events are operative in the control of proliferation and differentiation is also addressed. The book concludes by analyzing the involvement of histone modifications in the condensation of mitotic chromosomes. This book is of interest to advanced undergraduate students, as well as to graduate students and researchers in genetics, cell biology, biological chemistry, microbiology, and immunology.

  • The Cell Nucleus V2

    • 1st Edition
    • Harris Busch
    • English
    The Cell Nucleus, Volume II covers mainly the chromosomes, including its pathology. It also reviews the information onthe isolated mitotic apparatus highlighting on its chemistryand relevant morphology. This volume particularly discusses the mammalian chromosomes, the staining techniques, the kinetics of DNA replication in chromosomes, and the difference of meiotic chromosomes from mitotic chromosomes. It also presents studies on isolated mammalian metaphase chromosomes; chromosomes of birds and plants; as well as the polytene chromosomes of the two-winged insects, the Diptera. Furthermore, this volume describes the giant chromosomes. Lastly, the autosomal disorders, the abnormalities of sex development, and types of virus-induced chromosome alterations are explained to elucidate the pathology of chromosome.

  • Biological Response Modifiers

    New Approaches to Disease Intervention
    • 1st Edition
    • Paul Torrence
    • English
    Biological Response Modifiers: New Approaches to Disease Intervention focuses on biological response modifiers (BRMs) and the ways they provide novel approaches to disease control. It examines how BRMs act through an organism's own biological response mechanisms and how their mechanisms of action can be utilized to develop new modalities of chemotherapy. Organized into 15 chapters, this volume begins with an overview of specific agents and approaches to biological therapy, the basic concepts of immunity, and BRM screening. It then discusses interferons and their immunoregulatory functions; mechanism of interferon action; how nucleic acids and polynucleotides regulate the immune system; clinical applications of thymosins and other thymic hormones; the antibacterial and antineoplastic properties of tuftsin; and production and characterization of tumor necrosis factor. The reader is also introduced to detection and activity of colony-stimulating factor; the role of neuroendocrine hormones in the immune system; chalones and other endogenous inhibitors of cell proliferation; biochemistry of lymphotoxins; muramyl peptides as immunopharmacologica... response modifiers; biological activities of transfer factor in leukocyte dialysates; and requirements for activation and growth of human lymphocytes. This book is a valuable resource for immunologists, clinicians, biochemists, and organic/medicinal chemists.

  • Recombinant DNA And Cell Proliferation

    • 1st Edition
    • Gary Stein
    • English
    Recombinant DNA and Cell Proliferation focuses on the use of recombinant DNA technology in investigating the regulation of cell proliferation. Topics include gene transfer for assessing the role of defined DNA sequences in triggering DNA replication, nucleic acid hybridization probes for analyzing the regulation of specific genes during the cell cycle, and cloned DNAs for studying genes expressed with proliferation and differentiation. This book is organized into three sections encompassing 13 chapters and begins with a discussion on the expression of specific genes during the cell cycle. This text also deals with topics such as the use of cloned SV40 DNA fragments to examine signals for cell proliferation, expression of dihydrofolate reductase and thymidylate synthase genes in mammalian cells, and gene expression during the cell cycle of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The following chapters explore the expression of histone genes during the cell cycle in human cells; organization and expression of eukaryotic ribosomal protein genes; and expression of the alpha-fetoprotein gene during development, regeneration, and carcinogenesis. This book also introduces the reader to the role of the cell division cycle in induced differentiation, gene regulation in muscle cells, regulation of nonmuscle actin gene expression during early development, and sequences at ends of cellular DNA molecules in relation to telomere replication and function. An overview of the biochemical aspects of cell proliferation and the genes and gene products that are necessary and specific for cell proliferation concludes the book. This book will be of value both to advanced students and to research scientists.

  • Developmental Biology of the Sea Urchin Embryo

    • 1st Edition
    • Giovanni Giudice
    • English
    Developmental Biology of the Sea Urchin Embryo discusses both structural and experimental observations on the morphological and metabolical aspects of sea urchin embryology. It is organized into two major parts, designated morphogenesis and related problems and metabolism. These parts encompass 12 chapters that cover the role of sea urchin embryology in developmental biology and the advantages and limitations of using sea urchin embryo in the study of developmental problems. The introductory chapters describe the morphogenesis, ultrastructure, and physiology of fertilization of sea urchin embryo, including the process of modification of the egg surface. A discussion on cell dissociation and reaggregation in sea urchin embryos from blastula stage is provided. The core chapters of Part II cover the activation of respiration, nucleic acid and protein synthesis, and several other enzymatic activities.

  • Biology of the Tapeworm Hymenolepis Diminuta

    • 1st Edition
    • Hisao Arai
    • English
    Biology of the Tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta covers the physiological and biochemical aspects of the tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta. This book relates past and present knowledge in the field of parasitology. This reference is organized into 12 chapters, starting with a brief discussion on life history and taxonomy of the species. This is followed by the developmental biology of the fertilized ovum to the formation of the cysticercoids in an insect host. Discussions on the embryological, biochemical, and physiological aspects of H. diminuta, the intestinal helminth infections, and procedures for in vitro cultivation of various tapeworm species are provided. Chapter 7 presents a review of molecular DNA and RNA of H. diminuta and the results of isolation and characterization of these macromolecules. This is followed by a discussion on energy metabolism of adult H. diminuta in chapter 8. The latter four chapters focus on biochemical aspects of H. diminuta, including its membrane biology, immunity, and migratory and chemotherapeutic activities. This book encourages diversity among future studies in helminth ecology, physiology, immunology, and biochemistry. It will serve its purpose and ensure that parasitology field continues.

  • Coelenterate Biology

    Reviews and New Perspectives
    • 1st Edition
    • Leonard Muscatine
    • English
    Coelenterate Biology: Reviews and New Perspectives highlights research areas in which coelenterates are exceptionally useful and interesting experimental animals. It outlines the state of knowledge in coelenterate research and draws attention to some of the challenging problems that are amenable for study. Coelenterates offer valuable material for many levels of inquiry—from the population and organismic to the cellular, subcellular, and molecular levels. They are especially attractive animals for studies in developmental biology and behavior. The book begins by discussing cnidarians histology, focusing on the light and electron microscopy of cnidarian tissues. There are separate chapters on the skeletal system of cnidarians; the morphology, functions, and chemistry of nematocytes; and a few aspects of the enormous subject of cnidarian development. The subsequent chapters deal with cnidarian neurobiology, behavior, locomotion, flotation, and dispersal; experimental studies on algae-cnidarian symbioses; and coelenterate bioluminescence. The book concludes with a discussion of the systems of coordination and nervous system of ctenophores.

  • Nucleic Acid Research

    Future Development
    • 1st Edition
    • Kiyoshi Mizobuchi
    • English
    Nucleic Acid Research: Future Development reflects the exchange of ideas and information among the participants of ""The Future of Nucleic Acid Research"" symposium held at Kyoto on December 1981. This publication aims to extend the ideas presented in the symposium and to provide facts that can answer various scientific questions, particularly, in molecular biology. The book is divided into five parts. It explains the structure of DNA and chromosome and the interaction of nucleic acids with proteins. It also discusses the gene organization of prokaryotes as well as the gene expressions in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Moreover, it talks about the DNA replication and recombination prokaryotes. This publication is a masterful reference for genetics and molecular biology researchers and lecturers. It will also be an excellent learning material for students taking different courses in biology, including genetics, cell and molecular biology, molecular biophysics, and biochemistry.

  • Structural and Resonance Techniques in Biological Research

    • 1st Edition
    • Denis Rousseau
    • English
    Structural and Resonance Techniques in Biological Research discusses the fundamentals and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance, electron spin resonance, Mössbauer spectroscopy, x-ray absorption spectroscopy, macromolecular crystallography, and small-angle x-ray scattering and diffraction. The chapters are aimed at a level such that only a general understanding of chemistry and biology is required. The objective is to present material in a way that allows the research worker to assess quickly the applicability, utility, and significance of the specific technique to his or her problem or field of interest. Together with Optical Techniques in Biological Research, this book marks the introduction of a new series of volumes, Physical Techniques in Biology and Medicine, which is intended to replace a previous treatise, Physical Techniques in Biological Research.

  • Gene Manipulations in Fungi

    • 1st Edition
    • J.W. Bennett
    • English
    Gene Manipulations in Fungi combines a review of classical fungal genetics, contemporary research, and responsible speculation about the future. This book focuses on yeasts and molds; because yeast is the primary model system for eukaryotes and that there is an elegant research on molds. The applications of fungi, including their economic importance, are addressed. The book emphasizes the need for improved transformation systems, appropriate vectors, and broadly applicable selectable markers in this field of interest. This book will help stimulate the development of innovative approaches in this subject matter.

  • Energetics of Photosynthesis

    • 1st Edition
    • Govindjee
    • English
    Bioenergetics of Photosynthesis covers the transformation of energy in biological systems, with an emphasis on photosynthesis. The biochemical and biophysical aspects are given much focus in this book. The historical development of the concepts used in this book is reviewed. This reference also analyzes experimental data and their results. This publication contains 12 chapters. The first chapter introduces the concept of photosynthesis. Then, the next chapter explores the relationship between chloroplast structure and function . Other concepts covered in this book include the primary events (energy transfer and light absorption), delayed light emission, and chlorophyll fluorescence. The mechanism of excitation energy, oxygen evolution, and chlorophyll fluorescence are also explained. Furthermore, this book discusses the electron transport pathway, primary acts of energy conservation in chloroplast membranes, and molecular organization of chlorophyll. Finally, it describes the relationship of the structure of chloroplast membrane to energy coupling and ion transport. This book will be a good resource for students and researchers alike, especially in the fields of cell biology, plant physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics.

  • Physiology of the Amphibia

    • 1st Edition
    • Brian Lofts
    • English
    Physiology of the Amphibia, Volume III consists of 10 chapters beginning with a discussion on amphibian color changes and the various aspects of the molting cycle. Possessing a skin more suitable for life in the water, the amphibians need to prevent excessive water loss from their body to the environment; hence, an additional mechanism for reducing the hazards of desiccation in many anuran species is described. This book also tackles the physiology of amphibian cells in culture. Furthermore, the animals' nervous, visual, and auditory systems; their immunity; and metamorphosis are explained in this text. This reference will be useful to general biologists and to students with interests in animal physiology.

  • Sexual Interactions in Eukaryotic Microbes

    • 1st Edition
    • Danton O'Day
    • English
    Sexual Interactions in Eukaryotic Microbes provides a comprehensive discussion of the sexual processes of eukaryotic microorganisms. The book is organized into three parts. Part I presents an overview of intercellular communication, covering the modes of cellular communication and the benefit of using eukaryotic microbes for studying cell communication. Part II on pheromonal interactions includes studies on the role of sex pheromones in organisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Allomyces, Volvox, and Neurospora crassa. Part III on cell surface interactions presents studies such as sexual interactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae; sexual interactions of the cell surface in Paramecium; and the genetics and cellular biology of sexual development in Ustilago violacea. This book will be of value on a multitude of levels: from a general reference text to a source of research ideas. It will appeal to a wide spectrum of readers in a large number of disciplines, but will be particularly useful to cell biologists, microbiologists, protozoologists, and mycologists interested in the study of cellular communication.

  • Anatomy and Physiology

    • 1st Edition
    • Geoffrey Bourne
    • English
    The Rhesus Monkey, Volume I: Anatomy and Physiology discusses the anatomic and physiological measurement, microscopic anatomy, learning, skills, general behavior, and vocalization of rhesus monkey. The rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) is widely used for biomedical and psychological studies. Accordingly, an enormous fund of scientific information is available in papers and some collected data. This book is generally a collection of data from over 2000 papers on rhesus monkey. It covers topics on the cerebral angiography, electrocardiogram, and vector cardiogram of the rhesus monkey. It also provides additional information on morphology and function of rhesus kidney; the development and eruption of teeth in rhesus; and the histology and histochemistry of the rhesus monkey. This book serves as an invaluable reference work for all who work with this primate.

  • Physiological Mechanisms Of Marine Pollutant Toxicity

    • 1st Edition
    • Winona Vernberg
    • English
    Physiological Mechanisms of Marine Pollutant Toxicity contains the proceedings of a symposium on ""Pollution and Marine Organisms"" held at the University of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina, on November 30 to December 3, 1981. It explores the effects of pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and pesticides, on the physiology of marine organisms, along with the functional aspects of detoxification and the environmental health implications of pollution. Organized into three sections encompassing 24 chapters, this volume begins with a discussion of subcellular accumulation and detoxification of metals in aquatic animals such as fishes, crabs, and polychaetes. The reader is then introduced to the physiological mechanisms of pollutant toxicity, including the sublethal effects of pollutants on the gill morphology of the scallop, Placopecten magellanicus; mechanisms underlying the tolerance of killifish embryos to heavy metals; increased sensitivity of smolts in seawater to petroleum hydrocarbons, such as toluene and naphthalene; and physiological effects of sublethal concentrations of benzene and dimethylnaphthalene on blue crab juveniles. The book concludes by outlining research directions for linking cause and effect concerning pollution and marine organisms. This book will be a valuable resource for marine scientists, ecologists, and students.

  • The Lichens

    • 1st Edition
    • Vernon Ahmadijian
    • English
    The Lichens covers the structure and development, physiology of the intact thallus, environmental response and effects, secondary metabolic products, and symbiont interactions of lichens. This book is divided into five parts encompassing 19 chapters. It also includes appendices consist of a taxonomic scheme, methods for isolating and culturing lichen symbionts and thalli, and methods for isolating and identifying lichen substances. The first part of this book describes the original fungal cell and its development into specialized cells of which the various tissues and thalli are composed. This is followed by discussions on sexual reproduction of ascolichens and basidiolichens and on systematic criteria for the definition of taxa in different hierarchical steps. This book also explains the types of propagules produced by lichens and the submicroscopical investigations of lichens, including phycobiont and mycobionts' substructure and symbiotic relationship. The second part of this book examines the physiological aspects of lichens. It includes discussions on metal cation uptake and translocation in vascular plants and on lichens' role in rock weathering and soil formation. This part also studies photosynthetic rates and nitrogen absorption and metabolism by the intact thallus of lichens. Succeeding chapters discuss physiological and morphological responses of lichens to the most important environmental factors and the relationship of these factors to lichen distribution. Substrate preferences of lichens and their causes and implications with regard to the ecology, distribution, and taxonomy of lichens are also examined. This text also discusses lichen thalli growth, methods of measurement, and factors influencing growth. Finally, the concluding parts deal with the biosynthesis of lichen substances, secondary metabolic products, and symbiotic relations of lichens to fungi and algae. This multi-authored book is an ideal source of information for researchers, teachers, and students who wish to broaden their knowledge in the diversity of lichenology.

  • Social Insects V4

    • 1st Edition
    • Henry Hermani
    • English
    Social Insects, Volume IV is the last installment of a four-volume treatise and is dedicated to the discussion on wasps and ants. Comprised of four chapters, this volume focuses on the sociality of various types of ants as their group has very diverse habits. The first chapter describes the general biology and behavior of social wasps and discusses the cyclical populations, nest associates, and communal defense of wasps. Chapter 2 introduces the broad and general overview of the biology of ants, including their behavior, food collection, and nest construction. Chapters 3 and 4 present the biology of army and fungus ants, respectively. This volume also explains how ants are defined and identified, including their colony composition and behavior. As with the previous volumes, this volume seeks to be of service to students, researchers, and scientists in various fields of research, particularly entomology, social biology, zoology, and biological science.

  • Premature Chromosome Condensation

    Application in Basic, Clinical, and Mutation Research
    • 1st Edition
    • P.N. Rao
    • English
    Premature Chromosome Condensation: Application in Basic, Clinical, and Mutation Research emerged from a workshop supported by the International Union against Cancer that reviewed the status of research on premature chromosome condensation and explored future possibilities, not least in relation to cancer. The workshop was held at the Institut für Humangenetik, Freie Universität Berlin, on September 6, 1980. The book begins with a review of the process of premature chromosome condensation. This is followed by separate chapters on the functional and morphological aspects of premature chromosome condensation; the behavior of prematurely condensed chromosomes (PCC) during mitosis in binucleate and multinucleate cells; chromosomes from spermatogenic cells; and micronucleus-derived PCC. Subsequent chapters discuss the application of banding techniques to the study of PCC; the factors involved in the condensation of interphase chromatin into chromosomes; and the induction of premature chromosome condensation in somatic plant cells. This book will be helpful to readers working in basic and applied research or in teaching. These include cytogeneticists, cell biologists, biochemists, and investigators in the field of mutation research.

  • Bacillus Subtilis

    • 1st Edition
    • David Dubnau
    • English
    The Molecular Biology of the Bacilli, Volume I: Bacillus subtilis focuses on areas of research traditionally investigated in Bacillus subtilis, as well as topics in which outstanding progress has been made. It discusses the sporulation, defective bacteriophage, and transformation of Bacillus subtilis. Organized into 11 chapters, the book begins with the genetic map of Bacillus subtilis, followed by DNA replication and RNA polymerase of the said species. The book then describes the translational apparatus of Bacillus subtilis. It also explains the genetic transformation in Bacillus subtilis; the sporulation genes; the regulatory mechanisms in the development of lytic bacteriophages in this species; the temperate Bacillus subtilis phages; the specialized transduction in Bacillus subtilis; and molecular cloning in this organism. Lastly, the book considers the most economically important areas of the microbiological industry employing bacilli, including the production of enzymes, nucleosides, riboflavin, and preparations pathogenic to insects. This book will be useful to scientists who are concerned with the use of Bacillus subtilis as a tool for the study of molecular biology and to those who wish to increase the medical, veterinary, and industrial usefulness of this and related organisms.

  • Responses of Plants to Air Pollution

    • 1st Edition
    • J.B. Mudd
    • English
    Responses of Plants to Air Pollution examines the effects of air pollutants, individually and synergistically, on both higher and lower plants. The subject matter overlaps into a wide range of disciplines including agronomy, plant anatomy, biochemistry, cryptogamic botany, ecology, entomology, forestry, horticulture, landscape architecture, meteorology, microscopy, plant pathology, plant physiology, and soil science. The opening chapter presents an overview of sources of air pollution, costs of air pollution, and mechanisms of pollution injury to plants. Separate chapters on sulfur dioxide, ozone, fluorides, peroxyacyl nitrates, oxides of nitrogen, and particulates follow. Subsequent chapters are devoted to plant responses to combinations of pollutants; to effects of pollutants on plant ultrastructure, on forests, and on lichens and bryophytes; to interactions of pollutants with canopies of vegetation; to interactions of pollutants and plant diseases; and to interactions of pollutants with agricultural practices. This book will be useful to scientists in many disciplines as well as those who share the concern that clean air can no longer be expected to be the normal environment for plants or animals. The book will also be a valuable a reference work or text for upper level undergraduate students, graduate students, researchers, and growers of plants.

  • Economic Aspects: Fisheries and Culture

    • 1st Edition
    • Anthony Jr. Provenzano
    • English
    The Biology of Crustacea, Volume 10: Economic Aspects: Fisheries and Culture focuses on economic aspects of elements of crustacean biology associated primarily with the production of human food, namely, fisheries and culture. Organized into five chapters, this book deals first with the groups comprising the commercially important shrimps and prawns and their near relatives, as well as the generally used fishing method. It then describes the role and impact of body form in the biology and especially the fisheries of crabs. Subsequent chapter centers on lobsters and their kin, particularly the impact on fisheries methods and management approaches of behavioral responses to environment, modes of reproduction, recruitment, and population dynamics. Culture methods and factors important in managing systems through water quality control are then reported. Lastly, large-scale culture of major decapod groups, including the general biological characteristics of decapods relevant to aquaculture, is presented. This book will help stimulate the further exploration of some of the most fascinating and exciting problems in applied crustacean biology.

  • Swine Feeding and Nutrition

    • 1st Edition
    • Tony Cunha
    • English
    Swine Feeding and Nutrition provides detailed information on aspects of swine production. It begins with a presentation of the past, present, and future of swine industry. Then, it reviews the many factors that can affect nutrient requirements and needs. This text summarizes minerals, vitamins, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fiber, fatty acids, fat, energy, water, enzymes, and antibiotics and other antimicrobial compounds in swine industry. Furthermore, it discusses the relative value of feeds for use in swine diets and the feeding requirement for baby pig, growing-finishing pigs, and the breeding herd. This book will be very valuable to beginners in swine production, established swine raisers, feed manufacturers and dealers, county agents, farm advisors and consultants, and veterinarians. Animal science and agriculture students and instructors will also find this book helpful.

  • Nocturnal Malagasy primates

    Ecology, Physiology, and Behavior
    • 1st Edition
    • P. Charles-Dominique
    • English
    Nocturnal Malagasy Primates: Ecology, Physiology, and Behavior is composed of different studies investigating the “strategies” adopted by lesser known nocturnal species of Marosalaza forest to cope with the contrasted seasonal conditions. In general, it defines the relationship between ecology and physiology of these species. The book is divided into two parts. The first part is comprised of five chapters detailing field studies conducted during the seven successive and overlapping field trips, from November 1973 to July 1974. This part is focused on dietary adaptations,growth and reproductive cycles, activity rhythms, social structures, and interspecific competition in five sympatric prosimian species. The second part is also comprised of five chapters, but describes the laboratory studies conducted at Brunoy in simulated climatic conditions. It centerson the relationshipsand comparisons between species of annual variations in feeding,body weight, activity, and reproduction, with supplementary investigations of social interactions, marking,and learning abilities. Altogether, the field and laboratory studies presented in this book constitute a comprehensive approach to elucidate the problem of ecophysiology.

  • The Mycoplasmas V5

    Spiroplasmas, Acholeplasmas, and Mycoplasmas of plants and Arthropods
    • 1st Edition
    • R Whitcomb
    • English
    The Mycoplasmas,Volume V: Spiroplasmas, Acholeplasmas,and Mycoplasmas of Plants and Arthropods focuses on existing knowledge and recent development in research on spiroplasmas, acholeplasmas, and other mollicutes of plants and arthropods. Organized into 11 chapters, this volume discusses the nutrition, cultivation, ecology, and molecular and cellular biology of spiroplasmas. Because the occurrence of other mollicutes (mycoplasma and acholeplasma) in plant and arthropod environments is not extensively discussed in other volumes, this volume shows the rapid progress in describing the new mollicutes from arthropods and plant surface that they contaminate. Molecular studies of mollicute phylogeny and plant infections incited by the so-called mycoplasma-like organisms are also presented. This book will provide a comprehensive reference source for all mycoplasmologists and a relevant and exhaustive summary of recent advances in the study of spiroplasmas, acholeplasmas, and mycoplasmas in plant and arthropod hosts for microbiologists, cellular and molecular biologists, plant pathologists, and entomologists.

  • Viral and Mycoplasmal of Laboratory Rodents

    Effects on Biomedical Research
    • 1st Edition
    • Pravin Bhatt
    • English
    Viral and Mycoplasmal Infections of Laboratory Rodents: Effects on Biomedical Research contains the proceedings of a conference held at the National Institutes of Health on October 24-26, 1984. Organized into four parts, this book begins by elucidating the basic biology and pathogenetic mechanisms of viral and mycoplasmal infections. The presence of known and potential research complications due to these infections is also addressed. Lastly, the detection, control, and prevention of infection in rodent colonies are discussed.

  • Avian Biology

    • 1st Edition
    • Donald Farner
    • English
    Avian Biology,Volume VIII assesses selected aspects of avian biology. It is generally the conceptual descendant of Marshall's earlier treatise,“Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds,” but is more than simply a revision of it. This volume consists of two relatively lengthy, diverse chapters that focus on adaptive significance of coloniality in birds and fossil records of birds. In particular, this volume looks into group phenomena related to central place systems, that is, systems in which one or more individuals move to and from a centrally located place in the course of daily activities. It also addresses selective factors that have been suggested to explain why individuals should form colonies rather than disperse within the available foraging space. This book will be useful as a reference material for advanced students and instructors in this field of interest.

  • Phytopathogenic Prokaryotes V1

    • 1st Edition
    • Mark Mount
    • English
    Phytopathogenic Prokaryotes, Volume 1, provides an understanding of the diversity and complexity of diseases caused by phytopathogenic prokaryotes. It is part of a two-volume treatise that summarizes current research on these organisms. The book is organized into four parts. Part I covers the physical nature of prokaryotic phytopathogens as well as how they are presently classified, the limitation of this artificial classification, and the biology of the pathogen's invasion of plants. Part II presents conceptual hypotheses for the formation of the agricorpus (pathogen/host complex as a biological unit) and how this association may be detrimental or beneficial to both members of the unit. Other topics include the basic determinant of evolutionary change (the gene), and the evolution of vectors for dispersal of pathogens. Part III elaborates on the interaction at the plant/environment/pa... interface (the plant surface). It presents information on the interaction of prokaryotes in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, and how this interaction developed. Part IV shows how prokaryotes affect their hosts once infection has been established. This information is presented in sequence progressing from the disease-causing mechanisms of the facultative endophytic pathogens to those of the obligate endophytic pathogens.

  • Plant Disease: An Advanced Treatise

    How Plants Suffer from Disease
    • 1st Edition
    • James G. Horsfall
    • English
    Plant Diseases An Advanced Treatise, Volume III: How Plants Suffer from Disease deals with the mechanism on how individual plants suffer from disease. Organized into 19 chapters, this volume discusses plant growth, the conceptual theory of disease development in plants, and the occurrence of different kinds of impairment in diseased plant system. The opening chapters outline the array of physiological functions that are essential in the growth and development of healthy plants. This text also describes the effect of disease on the capture, transfer, and utilization of energy by plants. The subsequent chapters discuss specific types of dysfunction in plant system, including food flow, water system, mineral nutrition, and growth alteration. Other chapters deal with other plant diseases, such as crown gall, teratoma, dysfunction and shortfalls of symbiont responses, disrupted reproduction, and tissue disintegration. This volume also examines various physical factors of the environment that impose mechanical or other physical stresses on plants. It also discusses the engineering mechanics of growing plants and the effect of various pathogens and microorganisms on plant strength and plant organ structural integrity. Other chapters deal with the effect of disease on cell membrane and permeability and on intermediary plant metabolism. The concluding chapters cover the genetic aspects of diseased plants and the diseases that induce senescence and diseases that senescence induced. This volume is an invaluable source for plant pathologists and researchers, mycologists, virologists, and graduate students.

  • Methods of Animal Experimentation

    Environment and The Special Senses
    • 1st Edition
    • William Gay
    • English
    Methods of Animal Experimentation, Volume IV focuses on research problems related to animal experimentation, including aging, nutrition, and environmental studies. It summarizes therapeutic implications of animal experimentation methods to human application. Chapter 1 presents an introduction to inhalation chambers including discussions of the types of inhalation tests, inhalation equipment and technology, methods of generation and measurement of contaminants, and some of the specialized techniques available for the pulmonary exposure of animals. Chapter 2 provides practical information about methods and the auditory abilities of animals. Chapter 3 outlines some basic properties of the vertebrate olfactory systems and summarizes selected experimental methods and findings in olfactory research. The concluding chapter describes the use of vertebrate laboratory animals in gustatory research, including some procedures unique to taste research. Research scientists, medical researchers, and olfaction and gustatory experts will find this book invaluable.

  • New Protein Foods

    • 1st Edition
    • Aaron Altschul
    • English
    New Protein Foods, Volume 1: Technology Part A deals with protein methodologies in transforming protein sources into better or more useful sources. This volume is organized into 10 chapters that summarize possible sources of protein foods, such as legumes, meat, poultry products, and meat analogs. The introductory chapter presents an overview of the definition of food problem of the societies, the concept of affluent malnutrition, and the role of protein foods. This book then discusses the extent of controversy surrounding the issue of the amino acid fortification of cereals. It emphasizes rice, as it is a major staple in regions where fortification with amino acids should be of great benefit in eliminating malnutrition and improving the health and performance of the populations. This is followed by a discussion on protein fortification of various forms of breads and other products. Chapters 5-8 are devoted into the role of food proteins in human nutrition and the available technologies for their treatment. Emerging protein foods unique to Japan, including products of enzyme applications, are also discussed and their prospects are assessed. The concluding chapter presents underlying philosophies and problems as food and drug laws and regulations move to further definition of food products. It also presents the concern about food nutritive values in changing times. This book is an ideal source of information for food technologists and researchers who are interested with the evolving field of food proteins.

  • Horse Feeding And Nutrition

    • 1st Edition
    • Tony Cunha
    • English
    Horse Feeding and Nutrition is the fourth in a series of books on animal feeding and nutrition that focuses on horse feeding and nutrition, aiming to assist in world food production. Organized into 20 chapters, the book contains basic information on horse industry, feeding problems, and importance in food production of proper horse nutrition. The introductory chapters discuss the importance of the horse industry; the art, science, and myths in feeding horses; the problems involved in supplying an adequate level of nutrients in horse rations; and the digestion of feeds. Chapters 5-10 cover concise, up-to-date summaries on macro- and micronutrients, including vitamins, minerals, protein, and water. The book goes on, examining the important interrelationships between nutrition, disease, and performance; the relative value of various feeds in horse rations; and the value of pasture and hay for horses. Chapters 15-18 focus on feeding the foal, growing horses; the performance and race horses; and the mares and stallions. The final chapters discuss purified rations for horses, antibiotics, founder, learning ability, feeding behavior, nutrient toxicity, weight equivalents, weight-unit conversion factors, and the effect of cold weather on horses. The book provides information helpful to beginners and experts in horse production. It will also be valuable for county agents, farm advisors, consultants, veterinarians, and teachers of vocational agriculture, as well as animal science students and teachers.

  • Biochemistry of Insects

    • 1st Edition
    • Morris Rockstein
    • English
    Biochemistry of Insects reviews the state of knowledge in insect biochemistry. The book begins by examining the function of carbohydrates in regulating and maintaining the life processes of insects. This is followed by separate chapters on the functional roles of lipids and proteins in insects; and protein synthesis in insects. Subsequent chapters cover the chemistry of insect cuticle; the structure, distribution, and chemistry of insect biochromes; and chemical control of insect behavior. Also discussed are the biochemical aspects of the natural products used by insects in defensive contexts; the reaction of insecticides and related compounds with their targets; detoxification mechanisms in insects; and genetic variation in natural populations. Designed to serve as a basic textbook in field, this volume should be equally useful as an auxiliary text for most relevant courses in insect biology, particularly insect physiology, insect ecology, insect control, and economic entomology. The book should also serve as an important reference source for the advanced student, the research scientist, and the professional entomologist seeking authoritative details of relevant areas of subject matter.

  • Quantitative genetic variation

    • 1st Edition
    • James N. Jr. Thompson
    • English
    Quantitative Genetic Variation describes some of the experimental approaches to quantitative genetic variation, along with their potential applications and limitations. It considers one of the most widely applicable tools, i.e., biometrical analysis, as well as individual polygenic effects, specific components of a quantitative genetic trait, and artificial selection, and it shows how selection experiments can address specific developmental and genetic questions. Organized into four sections encompassing 17 chapters, this volume begins with a historical overview of the study of quantitative genetic variation, along with genetic variation in fungi and Drosophila. It then discusses the biometrical approach to quantitative variation, selection theory and analysis, uses and limitations of polygene mapping, and computer simulation of the breeding program for polygene location. The reader is also introduced to genes affecting quantitative aspects of physiology in rodents, as well as cytological markers and quantitative variation in wheat. This book will be extremely useful to students, researchers, and geneticists.

  • Pheromones and Reproduction in Mammals

    • 1st Edition
    • John Vandenbergh
    • English
    Pheromones and Reproduction in Mammals reviews current research findings on the role of pheromones in mammalian reproduction. Drawing on both quantitative laboratory studies and selected observational field studies, the book explores how animals actively deploy scent to facilitate sexual interactions and the functions of those scent signals during these interactions. Organized into two sections encompassing nine chapters, this volume begins with an overview of chemical signals and how they influence reproductive behavior in a variety of mammalian species. It then discusses the nature of chemical signals and olfactory perception; the role of chemical communication in mother-young interactions and in the reproduction of primates; how pheromones regulate puberty and the ovarian cycle; and pregnancy blocking by pheromones. The reader is also introduced to hormonal responses to primer pheromones; sensory physiology of pheromone communication; and the role of pheromones in the reproduction of domestic animals such as cattle, swine, sheep, and goats. Biologists and students of biology will find this book extremely informative.

  • The molecular aspects of autoimmunity

    • 1st Edition
    • Nadir Farid
    • English
    The Molecular Aspects of Autoimmunity contains a selection of the papers presented at the first of a series of biannual meetings on molecular aspects of autoimmunity held in L'Esterel, Quebec, Canada, October 30-November 2, 1988. The book contains 20 chapters and begins with a study of the expression of the Ly-1 gene and V gene families in autoantibodies. This is followed by separate chapters on the structural characteristics of human IgM autoantibodies; human IgV gene segments for autoantibodies; and the genetic basis of anti-DNA immune responses. Subsequent chapters cover topics such as the epibodies from the immune response to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR); the specificities and idiotypes of anti-histone H1 autoantibodies; T cell tolerance; and T cell antigen receptor (TCR) gene biology and the genomic composition and expressed repertoire of these genes in several autoimmune and normal mouse strains. Also discussed are MHC Class II associations with autoimmune disorders such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and thyroid disease.

  • Environment and the Experimental Control of Plant Growth

    • 1st Edition
    • R.J. Downs
    • English
    Environment and the Experimental Control of Plant Growth centers on the general role of environmental factors in plant growth and methods of providing the desired levels and limit of control. The book is organized into seven chapters focusing on the various factors in the environment, such as temperature, light, carbon dioxide, and water. It also describes the controlled environments for plant research. This book will help biologists understand what he is buying or constructing in terms of environment variability in plant growth facilities. It will also provide some help and guidance to those who have encountered the problem of not obtaining the degree of control they have expected in the units they have in hand.

  • Molecular Cytology V1

    The Cell Cycle
    • 1st Edition
    • Jean Brachet
    • English
    Molecular Cytology presents an integrated version about the morphology and biochemistry of the cell. This two-volume book focuses on the dynamic aspects of cytology and on the nucleocytoplasmic interactions in unicellular organisms and eggs. The first chapter covers the history of cell, cytology, and nucleic acids, as well as the uniformity and diversity in cell. The book then discusses various methods used in cell biology, including optical, cytochemical, biological, biochemical, and biophysical techniques. It also examines the activities of cytoplasm and nucleus during interphase. The final chapter describes various phases of the cell cycle, the structure of metaphase chromosomes, the molecular organization of the mitotic apparatus, and the cytokinesis, with emphasis on the main mitotic abnormalities. With the aim of linking the morphology and biochemistry of the cell, this book is intended for advanced students, research workers, biochemists, and cytologists who wish to broaden their knowledge in cell.

  • Protein Transfer and Organelle Biogenesis

    • 1st Edition
    • Rathindra C. Das
    • English
    Protein Transfer and Organelle Biogenesis is a seven-section volume focusing on the property of proteins to carry signals for secretion, mitochondrial assembly, and lysosomal localizations. It describes how these signals function and determines other factors necessary in building and maintaining the functions of a cell. Organized into seven sections encompassing 19 chapters, the book deals with the general aspects of protein translocation, modification, and sorting. It discusses the transport into the endoplasmic reticulum, the role of carbohydrates in glycoprotein trafficking, and the mechanism of endo- and exocytosis. It further discusses the localization of proteins to the mitochondrion and nucleus and with bacterial protein transport. The final section emphasizes the contribution secretion research that the biotechnology industry has made to the production of proteins. Biologists, cell biologists, researchers, teachers, and students who are interested in the mechanism of protein transfer and organelle biogenesis will find this book invaluable.

  • Microbiological Assay

    An Introduction to quantitative principles and Evaluation
    • 1st Edition
    • William Hewitt
    • English
    Microbiological Assay: An Introduction to Quantitative Principles and Evaluation aims to provide an introduction to the principles of microbiological assay, assay design, and calculation procedures. Organized into nine chapters, this book begins with the philosophy of biological assay, as well as the method’s basic techniques, principles, mechanization, automation, purpose, reference standards, specifications, and reports. It also looks into the preparation of test solutions of standard and sample. Some chapters follow explaining the specific methods, such as agar diffusion assay and tube assay; others explore the statistical evaluation of these assays. Features of assay design, such as replication, number of dose levels, and spacing of dose levels, are also described. This book will serve as an elementary introduction to this field of interest to help encourage a less empirical approach to the subject.

  • Plant Cold Hardiness and Freezing Stress

    Mechanisms and Crop Implications
    • 1st Edition
    • P.H. Li
    • English
    Plant Cold Hardiness and Freezing Stress: Mechanisms and Crop Implications contains the proceedings of an International Plant Cold Hardiness Seminar, held in St. Paul, Minnesota on November 2-4, 1977. Organized into seven parts, this book contains a collection of valuable articles on the advances in plant cold hardiness research. This text first addresses the freezing stress in plants in nature, in the field, or as a result of laboratory experiments intended to explain the process. Some chapters follow that discuss the effect of cold acclimation and freezing on plant's cell membrane, the mechanism of cold acclimation in plants, and the super cooling stress in plants. The survival, breeding, cryopreservation, and cryoprotection of plants are also explained.

  • Laboratory Safety Theory and Practice

    • 1st Edition
    • Anthony Fuscaldo
    • English
    Laboratory Safety: Theory and Practice focuses on theoretical aspects of the hazards the students, technicians, and scientists encounter in the laboratory. It presents methods of risk assessment that can be applied to technologies as they are translated from the scientist’s mind to the laboratory bench. It is organized into three sections designated as General Laboratory Safety, Biological Laboratory Safety, and Medical and Psychological Factors. The first section, encompassing three chapters, discusses hazards found in almost all laboratories; pertinent safety theories and practices; ubiquitous compounds that are either toxic or carcinogenic and guidelines for their use; and radiation hazards. Chapters 4 to 7 focus on the safety in the biological laboratory. Discussions on relatively complex group of viruses, approach to recombinant DNA research, and awareness on the possible hazards associated with the field are included in this book. Chapters 6 and 7 present design and function of biohazard laboratories and the hazards relating to laboratory animals. The final section discusses medical surveillance of persons at risk and the psychological factors involved in accident control. It presents a comprehensive list of chemical agents, their sources, subsequent physical effects, and the accepted mode of medical surveillance. Various genetic screening tests and their potential use for the evaluation of presumptive and actual mutagens are also covered. This book is ideal for safety and design engineers, students, technicians, and scientists.

  • Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses

    Paramyxoviruses and Rhabdoviruses
    • 1st Edition
    • David H.L. Bishop
    • English
    Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses: Paramyxoviruses and Rhabdoviruses consists of papers presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Negative Strand Viruses, held at Hilton Head, S.C., on September 11-17, 1983.This book specifically contains papers on negative strand virus families with nonsegmented genomes, paramyxoviruses and rhabdoviruses. This reference shows the advances in the research of the two virus families, paramyxoviruses and rhabdoviruses. It also illuminates the various stages in the strategy of negative strand virus infections, including adsorption, penetration, mRNA transcription, translation, RNA replication, morphogenesis, and virus release. The biology of virus infection and host response are also addressed.

  • Plant Disease: An Advanced Treatise

    How Disease Develops in Populations
    • 1st Edition
    • James G. Horsfall
    • English
    Plant Disease An Advanced Treatise, Volume II: How Disease Develops in Populations deals with the epidemiological aspect of disease in population of plants. Comprised of 18 chapters, this volume discusses the comparative anatomy, methods of research, instrumentation, computer simulation, and genetic basis of epidemics. After briefly discussing the sociology of plant pathology, the book presents the comparative anatomy of epidemics in terms of their structure, patterns of development, and dynamics. This volume describes the rational processes of epidemiological research and how they differ from the processes used to investigate disease in individual plants. A chapter examines the instrumentation for measuring the weather component, including temperature, humidity, air movement, and irradiance. Other chapters discuss the measurement of disease on whole living plants; the theory and measurement of inoculum potential; the dispersal of pathogens in both time and space; and the movement and maintenance of infectivity by pathogens that operate below ground. This volume also deals with computer simulators of plant disease and the use of predictive models to forecast epidemics for management decision making. It describes some general patterns of changes in plant-part susceptibility with time for various groups of diseases caused by fungi or viruses. A discussion on the problems of genetic uniformity and susceptibility and the breeding and deployment strategies needed to cope with these problems is included. Other chapters examine the influence of climate and weather on epidemics; the analysis of the geographical and climatic distribution of plants in various parts of the world; and the hazardous practices that have favored epidemics. Lastly, the probabilities of success for quarantines against diseases of various types are provided. This volume is an invaluable source for plant epidemiologists and pathologists, botanists, and researchers.

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