The Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain Injury

1st Edition - May 27, 2022
Editors: Rajkumar Rajendram, Victor R Preedy, Colin R Martin
Language: English
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 5 7 5 - 7

Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury will improve readers’ understanding of the complexities of diagnosis and management of traumatic brain injuries. Featuring… Read more

The Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain Injury

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Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury will improve readers’ understanding of the complexities of diagnosis and management of traumatic brain injuries. Featuring chapters on drug delivery, different treatments, and rehabilitation, this volume discusses in detail the impact early diagnosis and effective management has on the long-term prognosis of these injuries and the lives of those affected. This book will be relevant for neuroscientists, neurologists, clinicians, and anyone working to better understand these injuries.

Traumatic brain injury has complex etiology and may arise as a consequence of physical abuse, violence, war, vehicle collisions, working in the construction industry, and sports. Cellular, Molecular, Physiological, and Behavioral Aspects of Traumatic Brain Injury will improve readers’ understanding of the detailed processes arising from traumatic brain injury. Featuring chapters on neuroinflammation, metabolism, and psychology, this volume discusses the impact of these injuries on neurological and body systems to better understand underlying pathways. This book will be relevant for neuroscientists, neurologists, clinicians, and anyone working to better understand traumatic brain injury.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Front Matter for Volume 1
Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury
Copyright for Volume 1
Dedication for Volume 1
Contributors for Volume 1
Preface for Volume 1
Front Matter for Volume 2
Cellular, Molecular, Physiological, and Behavioral Aspects of Traumatic Brain Injury
Copyright for Volume 2
Dedication for Volume 2
Contributors for Volume 2
Preface for Volume 2
Volume 1: Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury
Section A: Setting the scene and introductory chapters
Chapter 1: Traumatic brain injury and in-hospital mortality- CT perfusion and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Neuroimaging for TBI
Diffusion tensor imaging
CT perfusion and in-hospital mortality
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 2: Predictors of outcome in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Predictors and outcome measures
Pediatric TBI
Prognostic models
Epidemiological considerations: the importance of outcome prediction considering between-country differences
Approaches to predictive models in TBI: Discordance between clinical research and clinical management of TBI
Recommendation for developing a predictive model in TBI
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of potential strategies in TBI outcome research
Summary points
References
Chapter 3: Thirty years post-injury: Impact of traumatic brain injury on later Alzheimer’s disease
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Understanding traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease
Similarities in the long-term prognosis of mild repetitive and severe isolated traumatic brain injury
Post-traumatic brain injury Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid-β pathology in traumatic brain injury
Tubulin-associated unit pathology in traumatic brain injury
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of post-traumatic brain injury delayed-onset cognitive and psychiatric disorders
Summary points
References
Chapter 4: Drug interventions and stem cells in traumatic brain injury: Translation from experimental model to bedside
Abstract
Introduction
The pathophysiology of TBI
Possible treatments for TBI: Drug interventions
Introduction to stem cells and their therapeutic potential
Pre-clinical studies utilizing stem cells for the treatment of TBI
Clinical studies utilizing stem cells
Limitations of stem cells use
Application to other fields of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of stem cells
Summary points
References
Chapter 5: Management of traumatic brain injury from the aspect of emergency department and case studies
Abstract
Introduction
Emergency department considerations
Management of mild brain injury (GCS score 13–15)
Management of moderate TBI
Management of sTBI
Airway
Rapid sequence intubation
Breathing
Circulation
Disability
Medical treatment of brain injury
Intravenous fluids
Correction of anticoagulation
Tranexamic acid
Transfusion in TBI
Management of elevated ICP
Body positioning
Hyperosmolar agents
Hyperventilation
Temperature management
Sedation and analgesia
Seizure management
Corticosteroids
Calcium channel blockers
Conclusions and future directions
Case 1
Case 2
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of advanced trauma life support
Summary points
References
Chapter 6: Neuropsychiatric disorders after severe traumatic brain injury: An overview
Abstract
Introduction
Methodological issues related to the neuropsychiatric assessment
Classification of the main neuropsychiatric disorders
A brief consideration of possible interventions
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of neuropsychiatric disorders after severe traumatic brain injury: An overview
Summary points
References
Section B: Clinical features of traumatic brain injury
Chapter 7: Cerebral hemorrhages in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
The BBB and NVC after TBI
NVC, TBI, and aging
Vascular pathophysiology after TBI
TBI hemorrhage identification and localization
Differential etiology of TBI-related hemorrhages
(Epi)genetic risk for hemorrhage after experimental TBI
Novel approaches for TBI CMB neuroimaging CMBs
TBI hemorrhages and AD
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cerebral hemorrhages after traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 8: Linking fibrinogen, coagulopathy prophylaxis, and traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Fibrinogen
TBI-induced coagulation/fibrinolysis cascade
Time course of fibrinogen concentration in the acute phase of TBI
Fibrinogen concentration and outcome in TBI
Therapeutic target level of fibrinogen
Measurements of fibrinogen
Correlation between fibrinogen and fibrinolytic parameters
Treatment by replenishment of fibrinogen
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about fibrinogen
Summary points
References
Chapter 9: Linking traumatic brain injury and nosocomial infections
Abstract
Introduction
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of ventilatory-associated pneumonia
Summary points
References
Chapter 10: Long-term sequelae of mild-repetitive and severe traumatic brain injury: Clinical manifestations, neuropathology and diagnosis by tau PET imaging
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Clinical symptoms and neuropathology of chronic states of TBI
Growing need for neuroimaging biomarkers of chronic pathologies of TBI
PET imaging of TBI with first-generation tau PET tracers
Challenges for quantification of tau load in TBI by tau PET imaging
Development of second-generation tau PET tracer
PET imaging of TBI with second-generation tau PET tracer
Future directions of research
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Key facts of neurodegenerative diseases following TBI
Key facts of tau PET imaging
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 11: Evaluating the integrity of white matter after traumatic brain injury and the utility of diffusion tensor imaging
Abstract
Introduction
The vulnerable white matter tracts in TBI
Clinical and neurophysiological evaluation of injury to white matter
Key facts of clinical and neurophysiological assessment after TBI
DTI: A primer
DTI and the white matter integrity
Key facts of DTI
DTI sequences and analysis tools: Strengths and weaknesses
Moderate-to-severe TBI: DTI Study
DTI in special populations: Mild TBI and blast-induced TBI
Diffusion tensor tractography (DTT) in patients with TBI
Limitation of DTI as a clinical tool
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 12: Cerebral activation of attention and working memory in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction: Executive dysfunction in traumatic brain injury
The neural basis of attention and working memory
Developmental changes in brain networks
Disruptions following TBI
Structural and functional changes following TBI
Modulating cortical activations in TBI using non-invasive brain stimulation
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of working memory and attention
Summary points
References
Chapter 13: Traumatic brain injury: Linking intracranial pressure, arterial pressure, and the pressure reactivity index
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Cerebral autoregulation
Development of the pressure reactivity index (PRx)
Association of PRx with outcomes
PRx in targeted therapy
Limitation of PRx
Future of cerebrovascular reactivity
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cerebrovascular reactivity in TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 14: Cerebral perfusion pressure thresholds in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Defining cerebral perfusion pressure
Cerebral autoregulation
CBF variability in TBI
CPP targets in TBI
Future directions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of CPP thresholds in TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 15: Brain swelling in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
Introduction
Historical background
Overview on the blood–brain barrier
The pathogenesis of brain edema
Clinical translation
Clinical classification
Conclusion(s)
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cerebral edema
Summary points
References
Chapter 16: Post-coma syndrome in the context of severe acquired brain injury: Traumatic brain injury and beyond
Abstract
Definition issues
Prognostic indicators
Sequelae of severe Acquired BRAIN Injury (sABI)
Intervention—A multidisciplinary approach
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of post-coma syndrome
Summary points
References
Section C: Diagnosis and evaluation
Chapter 17: Features of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 and its applications for traumatic brain injury assessment
Abstract
Introduction
ICF framework
WHODAS 2.0
Reliability
Validity
Current research on the use of the WHODAS 2.0 in TBI care
Evaluation of post-concussion syndrome in patients with mild TBI
Association between history of lifetime TBI and disabling functional restrictions
Assessment of chronic TBI with the WHODAS 2.0
Psychometric properties of the WHODAS 2.0
Prediction of institutionalization among patients with TBI
Conclusion
Applications to other neuroscience fields
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0
Summary points
References
Chapter 18: Biomarkers in pediatric traumatic injury: The brain and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Biomarkers in traumatic brain injury
Biomarkers in pediatric traumatic brain injury
Biomarkers and neuroimaging
Biomarkers as predictors of severity and prognosis of TBI
Biomarkers predicting late sequalae of TBI in children
Recognizing abusive trauma
Applications to other areas of neurosciences
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of traumatic brain injury
Key facts of biomarkers
Summary points
References
Chapter 19: Brain injury biomarkers: Proteins and autoantibodies interplay
Abstract
Introduction
The immunological cascade of events post-TBI
Autoantibodies as biomarkers in TBI: An overview
B-lymphocytes as a therapeutic target post-TBI
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience: The efficacy of GFAP in assessing the diagnostic power of different neuroimaging modalities
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key-facts of TBI biomarkers
Key facts of the glymphatic system (GS)
Summary points
References
Chapter 20: Chitinase-3-like protein 1: Features and applications as a biomarker in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Preclinical studies of YKL-40 in TBI
Clinical studies of YKL-40 in TBI
Future directions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of CHI3L1: Features and applications as a biomarker in TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 21: microRNA biomarkers in traumatic brain injury: A new narrative
Abstract
Conflicts of interest
Introduction
Characteristics of the ideal biomarker
Unique properties of micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs)
Measurement of miRNAs
The response of miRNAs to TBI
Use of miRNAs for mTBI diagnosis
Predicting TBI outcomes with miRNAs
Clinical management of mTBI
Top miRNA candidates
Future directions for miRNA research in TBI
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs)
Summary points
References
Chapter 22: Pediatric minor head injury imaging
Abstract
Introduction
Imaging
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of concussions
Summary points
References
Chapter 23: Transcranial Doppler ultrasound in acute traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Physical basis for transcranial Doppler ultrasound
Technical features and ultrasound neurovascular anatomy
Cerebrovascular disorders in severe traumatic brain injury
TCD peculiarities in certain clinical forms of traumatic brain injury
TCD-patterns at traumatic ICH
TCD-patterns after surgical removal of ICH
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of transcranial Doppler ultrasound
Summary points
References
Chapter 24: Computed tomography assessment of brain swelling
Abstract
Introduction
Parameters to evaluate brain swelling in computed tomography
Marshall scale
Rotterdam scale
Criteria to guide practical management
Special conditions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Key facts of brain swelling and computed tomography
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 25: Machine learning and prediction of traumatic brain injury mortality
Abstract
Introduction
TBI mortality
Predicting TBI mortality
Predictors of outcome
Prognostic models
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 26: Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: A focus on screening, diagnosis, and treatment
Abstract
Introduction
Screening of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries
Diagnosis of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries
Treatment of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injuries
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of screening strategies, diagnostic and treatment modalities of pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Section D: Treatments: Experimental and clinical
Chapter 27: European aspects of guidelines used in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Current data update and analysis
Other areas of neuroscience
Discussion
Mini dictionary terms
Key facts of adherence of guidelines for treatment of severe head injury
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 28: Anesthesia in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Preoperative management
Anesthetic management
Postoperative sequelae
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of anesthetics for injured brain
Summary points
References
Chapter 29: Treatment of raised intracranial pressure in traumatic head injury
Abstract
Introduction
Analysis of the treatment during the so called “brain decade”
Intracranial pressure monitoring
Role of the cranial decompression
Role of the ultrasound. Transcranial Doppler TCD
Discussion
Applications in other areas of neuroscience
Mini dictionary terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 30: Seizures after traumatic brain injury and their treatment
Abstract
Introduction
Pathophysiology of TBI-induced epileptogenesis
Early intervention after TBI to prevent PTS and PTE
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Kay facts of post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE)
Summary points
References
Chapter 31: Neurosurgical treatment of critical brain damage: The early post-surgical period and algorithms
Abstract
Introduction
Critical damage: Physiological features and surgical treatment nuances
“Damage control”: A path between the Scylla and the Charybdis
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the surgical treatment of polytraumazed patient with TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 32: Hypertonic saline usage in traumatic brain injury: A focus on pediatrics
Abstract
Introduction
Overview of traumatic brain injury and hyperosmolar therapy
History and evolution of the use of HTS for TBI
Pathophysiology/mechanism of HTS use for TBI
Current use of HTS in the pediatric clinical setting
Literature review
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of TBI in children
Summary points
References
Chapter 33: Treatment of vascular lesions in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Arterial lesions: Dissections and pseudoaneurysms
Endovascular treatment of traumatic aneurysms
Therapeutic arterial occlusion
Carotid-cavernous fistula
Treatment
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts: Treatment of vascular lesions in traumatic head injury
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 34: Airway pressure release ventilation (APRV) in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Airway pressure release ventilation
Positive end expiratory pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure
APRV in traumatic brain injury
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of APRV in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 35: Linking death, the paranasal sinuses, and traumatic head trauma
Abstract
Key points
Introduction
The significance of the paranasal sinuses
Anatomy of paranasal sinuses
Management: A change in surgical paradigm
History and physical examination
Imaging of paranasal sinus trauma
Pathogenesis
Cerebral perfusion pressure
Oxidative stress
Blood–brain barrier disruption
The debate about the protective effect of the paranasal sinuses
Music and paranasal sinus
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of paranasal sinuses
Key facts of crumple zone
Summary points
References
Chapter 36: Cannabidiol in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Cannabidiol targets
Phytocannabinoids
Neuroprotective role of cannabidiol
Cannabidiol in TBI-related anxiety and depression
Cannabidiol in TBI and post-traumatic stress disorder-related aggression
Cannabidiol in TBI-related gut microbiota dysfunctions
Cannabidiol and clinical trials
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cannabidiol
Summary points
References
Chapter 37: Valproic acid: A new narrative on its features and effects in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Background
Epigenetic changes following TBI
Valproic acid: A histone deacetylase inhibitor
Effects of valproic acid in pre-clinical models of traumatic brain injury
Underlying mechanisms of VPA-neuroprotection
Dosing, safety, and future work
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of traumatic brain injury and valproic acid
Summary points
References
Chapter 38: Dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Omega-3 fatty acids
Creatine
Vitamins
Zinc
Magnesium
Other dietary supplements for TBI
Promising dietary supplements for TBI
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury: Omega-3 fatty acids
Key facts of dietary supplementation for traumatic brain injury: Sports induced TBI
Summary points
References
Section E: Rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury
Chapter 39: Virtual reality and cognitive rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
CR strategies
Virtual reality
VR advantages and application in CR
VR in TBI CR: Current knowledge
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of virtual reality
Key fact for cognitive rehabilitation
Summary points
References
Chapter 40: How the elderly and young compare in response to traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
Abstract
Introduction
Characteristics of young and elderly patients with TBI
Assessment of young and elderly patients with TBI
Comparison of responses to rehabilitation in the elderly and young patients with TBI
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts on DTI
Key facts on fMRI
Summary points
References
Chapter 41: Rehabilitation of social cognition after traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
First historical programs: Rehabilitation of social cognition in other pathologies
Rehabilitation of social cognition in traumatic patients with brain injury
Rehabilitation programs of interpersonal and communication skills of theory of mind
Multi-component rehabilitation programs of social cognition
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of rehabilitation in social cognition
References
Chapter 42: Psycho-educational intervention on caregivers within the rehabilitation process: From the post-acute to the homecoming phases
Abstract
Introduction
Caregivers as primary resources within the neuro-rehabilitation process
Caregiver as victims themselves of the brain injury occurred to their loved one
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of psycho-educational intervention
Summary points
References
Chapter 43: Recommended resources and sites for the neuroscience of traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Resources
Other resources
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Volume 2: Cellular, Molecular, Physiological, and Behavioral Aspects of Traumatic Brain Injury
Section A: Setting the scene: The spectrum of traumatic brain injuries
Chapter 1: Fall-related traumatic brain injuries in older adults: The role of the neck
Abstract
Introduction
Role of neck muscles in TBI prevention
Effects of aging on neck muscles
Potential rehabilitation strategies
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Key facts of fall-related traumatic brain injuries
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 2: The implications of sex and gender in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Conceptual considerations
Basic science and preclinical research
Clinical and population-based research
Population-based research
Implications for translational research and medicine
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of sex/gender influences in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 3: Sport-related concussion: The role of repetitive head impact exposure
Abstract
Sport-related concussion
Monitoring head impact exposure in contact sports
Concussion and head impact exposure in soccer
Concussion and head impact exposure in ice hockey
Concussion and head impact exposure in American football
Summary
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of sport-related concussion: The role of repetitive head impact exposure
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 4: Traumatic brain injury and molecular biology: A new narrative
Abstract
Introduction
Excitatory mechanisms post TBI
Neuroinflammation
Mitochondrial injury post TBI
Cell death mechanisms post TBI
Long-term sequelae of TBI
Clinical implications of understanding the molecular mechanisms of TBI
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of pCaMKII
Summary points
References
Chapter 5: Features of decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: History, effects, management, and new trends
Abstract
Introduction
History of decompressive craniectomy
Effect of decompressive craniectomy on intra-cranial pressure and brain perfusion
Decompressive craniectomy: Surgical techniques
Evidences on decompressive craniectomy for management of intra-cranial hypertension in TBI. The randomized controlled trials
New trends in management of post-traumatic intra-cranial hypertension: Hinge/floating craniotomy and cisternostomy
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of decompressive craniectomy
Summary points
References
Chapter 6: Management of traumatic brain injury in accordance with contemporary guidelines: Treatment, monitoring, and thresholds
Abstract
Introduction
Decompressive craniectomy
Prophylactic hypothermia
Hyperosmolar therapy
Cerebrospinal fluid drainage
Thresholds and monitoring in TBI
Cerebral oxygenation
Brain tissue partial oxygen pressure (PbtO2)
Cerebral microdialysis
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary
Summary points
References
Further reading
Section B: Cellular and molecular aspects of traumatic brain injury
Chapter 7: Insights into the pathological role of neuroinflammatory responses in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Secondary cellular injury
Astrocytes
Acute neuroinflammation
Role of inflammatory mediators in neuroinflammation
Future direction of anti‑inflammation as a therapy for traumatic brain injury
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 8: Seizures in traumatic brain injury: A focus on cellular aspects
Abstract
Introduction
Incidence of seizure following TBI
Pathogenesis of seizure following TBI
Acute phase
Sub-acute phase
Chronic/latent phase
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of seizure in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 9: Linking traumatic brain injury, neural stem, and progenitor cells
Abstract
Introduction
Neural stem and progenitor cells and neurogenesis in development
Adult neurogenesis and TBI
Development of therapeutics: Standard care, challenges and prospective treatments
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs)
Summary points
References
Chapter 10: Microglia in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Microglia-resident immune cells in the brain with various morphologies
Microglial polarization (M1-like vs M2-like)
Heterogeneity of M1-like and M2-like polarization following TBI
Potential implications of microglia-mediated chronic neuroinflammation following TBI
Post-traumatic epilepsy
Chronic neurodegeneration
Psychosocial problems
Microglial priming after TBI
Areas for future investigation
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of microglia in TBI
Summary points
References
Chapter 11: Dendritic spine plasticity and traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Synapse structure and function
Potential mechanisms underlying dendritic spine damage after TBI
Treatments for dendritic spine dysfunction after TBI
Future directions of research for treatment of TBI
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of dendritic spine plasticity and traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 12: Aging, the immune response, and traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
The burden of TBI in geriatric populations
How aging affects the central nervous system
Aging influences the immune system
Vascular aging and inflammation
Neuroinflammation is an influential secondary injury mechanism in TBI
Aging affects TBI through neuroinflammation
Aging may influence TBI through other mechanisms
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of immunosenescence
Summary points
References
Chapter 13: The adaptive immune system in traumatic brain injury: A focus on T and B lymphocytes
Abstract
Introduction
Innate and adaptive immunity
Acute and chronic lymphocytic response in TBI
Consequence of a persistent adaptive immune response after injury
Therapeutic avenues
Systemic immunosuppression in TBI
Auto-reactivity following CNS injury
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the adaptive immune system in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 14: The role of regulatory T cells in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
The number of Tregs correlates with clinical outcome of TBI
Frequency and regulation of Tregs in animal models of TBI
Tregs attenuate immune responses in the acute phase of experimental TBI
Cell therapeutic approaches for increasing Tregs in experimental TBI
Pharmacological approaches for increasing Tregs in experimental TBI
Clinical studies evaluating effects of EPO and atorvastatin in TBI
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of “The role of regulatory T cells in traumatic brain injury”
Summary points
References
Chapter 15: The role of the chemokine prokineticin 2 in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
PK2 is upregulated after traumatic brain injury
Enhanced expression of PK2 is part of the response to traumatic brain injury
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Summary points
References
Chapter 16: The role of Na+,K+-ATPase on TBI-induced physiopathology
Abstract
Introduction
Structural characteristics of Na+,K+-ATPase in the central nervous system
Role of Na+,K+-ATPase in the mobility and synaptic transmission
TBI progress and Na+,K+-ATPase activity
Concluding remarks and perspectives
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of Na+,K+-ATPase
Summary points
References
Chapter 17: Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, metabolic enzymes, and energy derangement in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: Structure, function and regulation
PDHC in human pathologies
PDHC in TBI
Changes in gene and protein expressions of PDHC, PDP, PDK and TCA cycle enzymes after graded TBI
Post-traumatic dynamics of cellular energetics
Clinical implications and therapeutic targeting
Concluding remarks
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of “pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, metabolic enzymes and energy derangement in traumatic brain injury”
Summary points
References
Chapter 18: Angiopoietin-1/Tie-2 signaling in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Acknowledgment
Introduction
Ang-1 and Tie-2 in the vascular system
Role of Ang-1/Tie-2 signaling in the brain
Roles of Ang-1/Tie-2 signaling in TBI
Candidate drugs for TBI that activate the Ang-1/Tie-2 signaling pathway in the brain
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of Angiopoietin
Key facts of Tie-2
Key facts of the blood-brain barrier
Summary points
References
Chapter 19: Brain microdialysis and applications to drug therapy in severe traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Main text
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of brain microdialysis and applications to drug therapy in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 20: Comparing radiation and traumatic brain injuries: New insights
Abstract
Introduction
Different subsections of the main text
Structural changes in brain parenchyma resulting from TBI and radiation-induced brain injury
Structural changes in the vascular endothelium resulting from TBI or RBI
Activation of inflammatory responses following TBI and RBI
Inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress and unfolded protein response
Renin-angiotensin system, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors ACE I, and angiotensin type 1 receptor blockers
Diagnostics for TBI and RBI: Neural proteins released into blood compartment following brain injuries
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 21: Sodium dysregulation in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Review of axon structure
Cellular models of axon stretch injury and sodium handling
Sodium interaction with cellular-level calcium
Voltage-gated sodium channels and spectrin
Longer term ionic effects of injury: Altered Nav expression and distribution in TBI
Multiple injuries and the effects on sodium
Interaction with and role of potassium
In vivo evidence of sodium derangement from sodium magnetic resonance imaging in human TBI subjects
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of sodium dysregulation in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 22: WNT genes and their roles in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
The epigenome during regeneration of the nervous system
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of transcription
Summary points
References
Section C: Physiological and metabolic effects
Chapter 23: Circuit reorganization after diffuse axonal injury: Utility of the whisker barrel circuit
Abstract
Introduction
Circuit damage and recovery: Adaptive and maladaptive responses
Neuroplasticity
Whisker barrel circuit (WBC)
Chronic post-traumatic morbidity in the WBC
Rehabilitation and recovery
Conclusions, outlook, and challenges
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of brain injury circuit reorganization
Summary points
References
Chapter 24: Neuroendocrine abnormalities following traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Pituitary gland physiology
Pathophysiology
Prevalence
Risk factors
Associations
Clinical course
Signs and symptoms
Corticotropin deficiency
Thyrotropin deficiency
Gonadotropin deficiency
Hyperprolactinemia
Growth hormone deficiency
DI and SIADH
Neuroimaging
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of confounding symptoms in traumatic brain injury with post-traumatic hypopituitarism
Summary points
References
Chapter 25: Thyroid hormone actions in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and the brain
Neuroprotective actions of thyroid hormones in TBI
Thyroid hormones in TBI patients
Diagnosis of endocrine dysfunction in TBI patients
Future perspectives
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of thyroid hormone actions in the setting of traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 26: Testosterone: Features and role in treating traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Traumatic brain injury: From epidemiology to pituitary dysfunction
Testosterone synthesis, metabolism and signal transduction
Testosterone implications for brain trauma
Conclusion
Testosterone applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of testosterone use in traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 27: The rate of empty sella (ES) in traumatic brain injury: Links with endocrine profiles
Abstract
Introduction
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced hypopituitarism
Empty sella syndrome secondary to TBI and associated hypopituitarism
Treatment
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of “The rate of empty sella (ES) in traumatic brain injury: Links with endocrine profiles”
Summary points
References
Chapter 28: Traumatic brain injury: Inter-relationship with sleep
Abstract
Introduction
Sleep physiology
Types of sleep disturbance associated with TBI
TBI-induced damage to sleep associated brain regions
TBI-induced inflammation can affect sleep
Severity and circumstance of injury can affect the patient’s sleep
Conclusion/future directions
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 29: Puberty and traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Endocrine disruptions in juveniles following TBI
Puberty
Delayed puberty
Precocious puberty
HPG axis
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and kisspeptin
Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
Testosterone and estrogen
Growth hormone
Timing of brain injury on puberty
Possible mechanisms of TBI-induced damage leading to pubertal dysfunction
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of puberty and traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 30: Role of endocannabinoids in the escalation of alcohol use following traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Initial pathophysiology of TBI: Mechanical injury exacerbated by neuroinflammation
TBI-induced synaptic hyperexcitability
TBI and alcohol consumption
Possible mechanisms of post-TBI escalation of alcohol drinking
Targeting the endocannabinoid system to treat the biobehavioral consequences of TBI
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 31: Imaging connectivity and functional brain networks in mild traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Resting state fMRI—The basics
Data acquisition and processing
Analytical approaches to functional connectivity through rsfMRI
RsfMRI changes in early phase of injury
Challenges related to rsfMRI evaluation of TBI data
Future prospects
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 32: Multi-shell diffusion MR imaging and brain microstructure after mild traumatic brain injury: A focus on working memory
Abstract
Introduction
dMRI and MTBI
Working memory and dMRI
Summary
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI)
Summary points
References
Chapter 33: Monitoring real-time changes in physiology: Multi-modality neurologic monitoring for pediatric traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Neuromonitoring techniques
Pediatric TBI guidelines
Data integration
Integration and visualization of multi-modal neurologic monitoring systems
Clinical decision support
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of monitoring real-time changes in physiology: Multi-modality neurologic monitoring for pediatric traumatic brain injury
Summary points of monitoring real-time changes in physiology: Multi-modality neurologic monitoring for pediatric traumatic brain injury
References
Chapter 34: Blood gas, arterial, and end-tidal carbon dioxide in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
The importance of carbon dioxide (CO2) in cerebral blood flow regulation
Clinical concerns related to hypocapnia
Basics of capnography
Current recommendations of ventilation therapies from Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for sever TBI management
Capnography monitoring in adult severe TBI care
Utility and reliability of capnography monitoring in pre-hospital TBI care
Capnography monitoring in pediatric TBI care
Reliability of EtCO2 as a surrogate for PaCO2 in PICU
Agreement between PaCO2 and EtCO2 in hospitalized pediatric TBI
Future direction: Role of transcutaneous PCO2 to estimate PaCO2
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of how CO2 change brain blood flow and how we measure it
Summary points
References
Chapter 35: Disturbances of cerebral microcirculation in traumatic brain injury: The role of changes in microcirculatory biomarkers
Abstract
Introduction
Blood viscosity impairment
Glia-mediated edema and capillary compression
Pericyte dysfunction
Vasoactive blood derivatives
Neurovascular coupling disorder
Intracranial hypertension and vascular wall tonus
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cerebral microcirculation
Key facts of human blood
Summary points
References
Section D: Behavioral and psychological aspects
Chapter 36: Social cognition in traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical model of Cassel et al. (2016)
Social cognition components
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
References
Chapter 37: Physical exercise: Effects on cognitive function after traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Effects of physical exercise on the brain after a traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury, physical exercise and cognition: Lessons from animal research
Cognitive effects of physical exercise after traumatic brain injury: Clinical studies
How to improve effective crosstalk between animal research and the clinical setting?
Final remark
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 38: Traumatic axonal injury as a key driver of the relationship between traumatic brain injury, cognitive dysfunction, and dementia
Abstract
Defining traumatic brain injury: Severity and type of precipitating injury
Detecting traumatic axonal injury
Mechanisms of injury in TAI: Primary versus secondary axotomy
Degenerative changes in axons persist long-term following injury
TAI and cognitive dysfunction
Increased dementia risk following TBI: The role of TAI
Accumulation of amyloid beta within axons following TAI
Accumulation of tau within axons following TAI
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about traumatic axonal injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 39: Neuropsychological functioning of children and youth after traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Cognitive functioning after pediatric TBI
Emotional and behavioral functioning after pediatric TBI
Long-term sequelae of pediatric TBI
Current limitations of existing research
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of neuropsychological functioning of children and youth after traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 40: Behavioral effects of traumatic brain injury: Use of guanosine
Abstract
Introduction
Guanosine as a potential therapy on traumatic brain injury
Cellular targets in neuroprotection of guanosine
Perspectives and conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of behavioral effects of traumatic brain injury: Use of guanosine
Summary points
References
Chapter 41: Recognizing emotions and effects of traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Emotion perception in TBI
Emotion recognition: Different stimuli and tasks
Multiple sensory channels
The valence’s effect
The physiological responsivity
Neural correlates of facial recognition impairment in TBI patients
The effects of emotion’s perception deficit on social cognition
Emotion perception deficits predict functional outcome
Interaction between emotion recognition, social cognition, and non-social cognition
Conclusion
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of emotion perception
Summary points
References
Chapter 42: Cognitive communication connections and higher-level language with traumatic brain-injured population
Abstract
TBI and higher-level language introduction
Figurative language skills, inferencing, proverbs, and TBI
Framework and language deficits connections
Prosody and TBI
Working memory and traumatic brain injury
Attention and TBI
Working memory and language
Conclusion
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of higher-level language
Summary points
References
Chapter 43: Self-awareness after severe traumatic brain injury: From impairment of self-awareness to psychological adjustment
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical frameworks and explanatory models of ISA
The assessment of ISA
The dual aspect of reporting a functional problem after sTBI: From ISA to denial
The neuro-rehabilitation of ISA
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of impairment in self-awareness after severe traumatic brain injury
Summary points
References
Chapter 44: Disentangling antecedents from consequences of traumatic brain injury: The need for prospective longitudinal studies
Abstract
Introduction
Aggressive behavior and criminal offending observed in samples of TBI patients
Comparing TBI patients and healthy individuals within birth or population cohorts
TBIs in samples of criminal offenders
Do TBIs sustained in early childhood increase the risk of subsequent conduct problems?
Childhood conduct problems and accidents
Do conduct problems and inattention-hyperactivity in middle childhood increase the risk of subsequent TBIs?
Why or how would childhood CP increase the risk of accidents and TBIs?
Could treatments for CP and inattention reduce the risk of TBIs?
Conclusions
Applications to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about TBIs
Key facts about childhood conduct problems and inattention
Summary points
References
Chapter 45: The link between sleep and quality of life in childhood traumatic brain injury
Abstract
Introduction
Prevalence and assessment of sleep–wake disturbances in child TBI
Proposed causes of SWD in child TBI
Sleep outcomes in childhood TBI
Factors associated with SWD in child TBI
Quality of life in childhood TBI
Sleep and QoL in childhood TBI: Gaps in the literature
Conclusion
Application to other areas of neuroscience
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about sleep and quality of life in children with TBI
Summary points
References
Index for Volume 1
Index for Volume 2

Rajkumar Rajendram

Dr Rajkumar Rajendram is a clinician scientist with a focus on internal medicine, anaesthesia, intensive care and peri-operative medicine. He graduated with distinctions from Guy’s, King’s and St. Thomas Medical School, King’s College London in 2001. As an undergraduate he was awarded several prizes, merits and distinctions in pre-clinical and clinical subjects.

Dr Rajendram began his post-graduate medical training in general medicine and intensive care in Oxford. He attained membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) in 2004 and completed specialist training in acute and general medicine in Oxford in 2010. Dr Rajendram subsequently practiced as a Consultant in Acute General Medicine at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford.

Dr Rajendram also trained in anaesthesia and intensive care in London and was awarded a fellowship of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (FRCA) in 2009. He completed advanced training in regional anaesthesia and intensive care. He was awarded a fellowship of the Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine (FFICM) in 2013 and obtained the European diploma of intensive care medicine (EDIC) in 2014. He then moved to the Royal Free London Hospitals as a Consultant in Intensive Care, Anaesthesia and Peri-operative Medicine. He has been a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (FRCP Edin) and the Royal College of Physicians of London (FRCP Lond) since 2017 and 2019 respectively. He is currently a Consultant in Internal Medicine at King Abdulaziz Medical City, National Guard Heath Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Dr Rajendram’s focus on improving outcomes from Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has involved research on point of care ultrasound and phenotypes of COVID-19. Dr Rajendram also recognises that nutritional support is a fundamental aspect of medical care. This is particularly important for patients with COVID-19. As a clinician scientist he has therefore devoted significant time and effort into nutritional science research and education. He is an affiliated member of the Nutritional Sciences Research Division of King’s College London and has published over 400 textbook chapters, review articles, peer-reviewed papers and abstracts.

Affiliations and expertise

Consultant in Internal Medicine, King Abdulaziz Medical City, National Guard Heath Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Victor R Preedy

Victor R. Preedy BSc, PhD, DSc, FRSB, FRSPH, FRSC, FRCPath graduated with an Honours Degree in Biology and Physiology with Pharmacology. After gaining his University of London PhD, he received his Membership of the Royal College of Pathologists. He was later awarded his second doctorate (DSc), for his contribution to protein metabolism in health and disease. He is Professor of Clinical Biochemistry (Hon) at King’s College Hospital and Emeritus Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry at King’s College London. He has Honorary Professorships at the University of Hull, and the University of Suffolk. Professor Preedy was the Founding Director and then long-term Director of the Genomics Centre at King’s College London from 2006 to 2020. Professor Preedy has been awarded fellowships of the Royal Society of Biology, the Royal College of Pathologists, the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, the Royal Institute of Public Health, the Royal Society for Public Health, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Royal Society of Medicine. He carried out research when attached to the National Heart Hospital (part of Imperial College London), The School of Pharmacy (now part of University College London) and the MRC Centre at Northwick Park Hospital. He has collaborated with international research groups in Finland, Japan, Australia, USA, and Germany. To his credit, Professor Preedy has published over 750 articles, which includes peer-reviewed manuscripts based on original research, abstracts and symposium presentations, reviews and edited books.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King’s College Hospital, London, UK; Emeritus Professor, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, UK Visiting Professor, University of Hull, UK

Colin R Martin

Colin R. Martin RN, BSc, MSc, PhD, MBA, YCAP, FHEA, C.Psychol, AFBPsS, C.Sci is Professor of Clinical Psychobiology and Applied Psychoneuroimmunology and Clinical Director of the Institute of Health and Wellbeing at the University of Suffolk, UK. He is a Chartered Health Psychologist and a Chartered Scientist. He also trained in analytical biochemistry, this aspect reflecting the psychobiological focus of much of his research within mental health. He has published or has in press well over 300 research papers and book chapters. He is a keen book author and editor having written and/or edited more than 50 books. These outputs include the prophetic insight into the treatment of neurological disease, Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition (2011), Nanomedicine and the Nervous System (2012), Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants in Neurological Disease (2020), Zika Virus Impact, Diagnosis, Control and Models (2021), Factors Affecting Neurodevelopment: Genetics, Neurology, Behavior and Diet (2021), Diagnosis and Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury (2022), The Neurobiology, Physiology, and Psychology of Pain (2022) and The Handbook of Lifespan Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Childhood, Adolescence, Pregnancy, Adulthood, and Aging (2023). Professor Martin is particularly interested in all aspects of the relationship between underlying physiological substrates and behavior, particularly in how these relationships manifest in both acute and chronic psychiatric disorder. He has published original research germane to significant mental health disorders including the areas of schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, self-esteem, alcohol and drug dependency, high secure forensic mental health and personality disorder. He has a keen interest in the impact of postviral illness and is actively involved in clinical research post-Covid pandemic and in particular, the impact of Long Covid on psychological, neurological, physiological and social functioning. He is involved in collaborative International research with many European and Non-European countries.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Clinical Psychobiology and Applied Psychoneuroimmunology and Clinical Director: Institute for Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK

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The Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain Injury

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Rajkumar Rajendram

Victor R Preedy

Colin R Martin