Safety in the Process Industries

ForewordPrefaceIntroductionPart I Setting the Stage Chapter 1 From Past To Present 1.1 Origins of Process Hazards 1.2 Toxic Hazards of Ancient Metals 1.3 Changing Attitudes to Health and Safety in Chemical Education 1.4 Insurance Losses in the US Chemical Industry 1.5 Recent UK Experience 1.6 Vapour Cloud Explosions (VCEs) and Other Major World Losses in the Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industries Chapter 2 Laws, Codes and Standards 2.1 Present International Trends 2.2 The UK Background 2.3 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HSWA) 2.4 Legislation on the Control of Major Hazards 2.5 Other Relevant Legislation and Its Problems 2.6 The Law and Public Inquiries Into Major Accidents 2.7 The Role of Standards 2.8 Levels of Standards 2.9 Safety Standards and Codes of Practice Chapter 3 Meanings and Misconceptions 3.1 Units and Nomenclature 3.2 Meanings of Health and Safety Terms Used 3.3 Misconceptions and Disasters Chapter 4 Flixborough and Its Lessons 4.1 Process Description and Normal Start-Up 4.2 Conditions During Start-Up on 1 June 1974 4.3 Possible Causes for the Failure of the By-Pass Assembly 4.4 The Court's Views on the Immediate Cause of the Disaster 4.5 The Pressure Rises and Their Cause 4.6 What Caused the Earlier Failure of R5? 4.7 Organisational Misconceptions 4.8 Lessons to be Learnt Chapter 5 Four Other Major Accidents 5.1 The Explosion at Shell's Pernis Refinery in 1968 5.2 The Explosion at Dow Chemical Company's factory at King's Lynn, 27 June 1976 5.3 The 'Dioxin' release at Seveso on 10 July 1976 5.4 The Bhopal disaster in December 1984Part II Hazards - Chemical, Mechanical and Physical Chapter 6 Electrical and Other Physical Hazards 6.1 General Electrical Hazards 6.2 Electrical Ignition Hazards 6.3 Static Electricity (including lightning) 6.4 Physical Hazards Involving Liquids Chapter 7 Health Hazards of Industrial Substances 7.1 Occupational Health Professionals 7.2 How Harmful Substances Attack Us 7.3 Effects on Body Organs 7.4 Units and Classes of Toxicity 7.5 Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs) 7.6 Sources of Exposure to Airborne Substances Hazardous to Health 7.7 Monitoring the Working Environment for Toxic Substances 7.8 Substances Hazardous to Health, and the Law 7.9 Treatment of Affected Persons 7.10 How Does One Decide if a Disease is Occupational? Chapter 8 Chemical Reaction Hazards 8.1 Reactivities of the Elements and Structural Groupings 8.2 Reaction Rate 8.3 The Power of Reactions 8.4 Inorganic Reactions 8.5 Some Hazardous Organic Reactions and Processes 8.6 Reactivity as a Process Hazard 8.7 Self-heating Hazards of Solids 8.8 Reactive Substances and CIMAH Regulations 7 to 12 Chapter 9 Explosion Hazards of Process Materials 9.1 Explosive Deflagrations and Detonations 9.2 Industrial Chemicals with Explosive Potential 9.3 Structural Groups Which Confer Instability 15 9.4 Preliminary Screening of Materials for Explosivity 9.5 Thermochemical Screening 9.6 Stability and Sensitivity Tests 9.7 Classification of Materials with Explosive Potential 9.8 Explosions of Industrial Chemicals Outside the Explosives Industry 9.9 Features of the Explosives Industry and the Explosives Acts of 1875 and 1923 9.10 Explosives and CIMAH Regulations 7-12 Chapter 10 Flammability, Fires, and Explosions Involving Air 10.1 NFPA Flammability Classification of Materials 10.2 Parameters of Flammability (Mainly for Gases and Vapours) 10.3 Flammability and CIMAH Regulations 7-12 10.4 Flammable Dusts and Explosive Dust Clouds 10.5 Liquid and Vapour Fires and Aerial Explosions Chapter 11 Corrosion Hazards and Control 11.1 Acceptable Corrosion Rates 11.2 Galvanic Corrosion 11.3 Corrosion of Iron and Steel in Aqueous Media 11.4 Other Types of Metal Corrosion 11.5 Passivation 11.6 Corrosion-Resistant Metals and Alloys 11.7 Examples of Industrial Corrosion Problems 11.8 Notes on 'Corrosion' of Non-Metals Chapter 12 Fire and Explosion Hazard Rating of Process Plant 12.1 The Dow Fire and Explosion Hazard Index, Third Edition 12.2 The Mond Index 12.3 Plant Layout and Unit Hazard Rating 12.4 Maximum Probable Property Damage From Vapour Cloud Explosions (VCEs) Chapter 13 Hardware Hazards 13.1 Mechanical Causes of Metal Failure 13.2 General Hazards of Moving Machinery 13.3 Common Hazards of Rotary Machines 13.4 Centrifuges 13.5 Mixers 13.6 Pumps 13.7 CompressorsPart III Hazard Control in Design and Maintenance Chapter 14 Reliability and Risk Analysis 14.1 Introduction to Reliability 14.2 Process Equipment Reliability 14.3 Risk Analysis and Its Scope 14.4 Fault Trees 14.5 Truth Tables and Event Trees 14.6 Consequences of Accidental Releases 14.7 Risks to Life - Quantification and Levels of Acceptability Chapter 15 Active Protective Systems and Instrumentation 15.1 Overpressure Relief-General 15.2 Pressure-Relief Devices and Definitions 15.3 Causes of Overpressure 15.4 Calculation of Individual Relieving Rates 15.5 Disposal of Released Fluids 15.6 Other Means of Pressure-Relief 15.7 Instrumentation for Control and Safety 15.8 Component Features of Instrumentation 15.9 Features of PES Systems Used for Control and Safety 15.10 Hazards of Instrument Maintenance and Modifications Chapter 16 Designing for Safety 16.1 Checklists 16.2 Pre-sanction Planning and Preliminary Hazard Studies 16.3 Design Organisation and Parties Involved 16.4 Process Engineering 16.5 Process Engineering Hazards and Hazard Study III 16.6 Other Design Activities 16.7 Hazard Studies IV to VI 16.8 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Chapter 17 Maintenance and Inspection 17.1 Maintenance 17.2 Pre-Operational Inspection 17.3 In-Service Inspection 17.4 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) 17.5 Condition Monitoring (CM) 17.6 Pressure, Leak and Acoustic Emission Testing Chapter 18 Safe Work Permits 18.1 Why Permits are Needed 18.2 Principles of Permit Systems 18.3 Permits for Maintenance 18.4 Outline of the Dow System 18.5 Precautions Before Issueing a Permit 18.6 Practical Preparations for Maintenance 18.7 Entry into Confined Spaces 18.8 Other Permits and Certificates Used 18.9 Pitfalls that Must be AvoidedPart IV Management, Production and Related Topics Chapter 19 Management for Health and Safety (HS) 19.1 Management's Responsibilities for Health and Safety(HS) 19.2 HS Programmes and Their Elements 19.3 Special Management Problems 19.4 Computers and Safety Chapter 20 Commissioning, Operation and Emergency Planning 20.1 Commissioning 20.2 Plant Operation 20.3 Planning for Major Emergencies Chapter 21 Safety Training for Process Workers 21.1 Training Aims and Framework 21.2 On-the-job Training 21.3 Training Media and Methods 21.4 Training for Special Safety Responsibilities Chapter 22 Personal Protection in the Working Environment 22.1 Standards for PPC/E 22.2 Comfort and Body Protection 22.3 Hand Protection 22.4 Head Protection 22.5 Standing Work and Foot Protection 22.6 Vision and Eye Protection 22.7 Noise and Hearing Protection 22.8 Breathing and Respiratory Protection 22.9 Other Personal Hazards Chapter 23 Hazards in the Transfer of Technology (TT) 23.1 Definitions and Historical Introduction 23.2 The ILO Code of Practice 23.3 Examples of the Spread of Hazardous Technologies 23.4 Problems of Culture, Communication and Language 23.5 Problems of Standards in Developing Countries 23.6 Uganda 1976 23.7 Important Lessons for Technology ImportersAppendicesA Process Industries in the UK and Numbers EmployedB NFPA Classification of Hazardous MaterialsC Material Safety Data SheetsD Vapour Cloud Explosions up to 1983E Largest Losses in the Hydrocarbon/Chemical Industries 1958-1987F Some Details Given in the CPL Regulations and Approved ListG Some Details of the COSHH Regulations and Approved Codes of PracticeH Important Codes of Practice and British StandardsJ Questionnaire for Designers to Ensure Safe MaintainabilityK A Checklist to Test the Safety Policy StatementL A Summary of Incidents Which Have to be Reported Under RIDDORM Sources of HS Training and Information (mainly UK)N Standards (mainly British) Relating to Personal Protective Equipment and ClothingO Factors to be Considered in Setting Up Industries and Transferring Technologies to Tropical and Sub-Tropical RegionsP Ergonomie and Anthrometric Factors to be Considered in Setting Up Industries and Transferring TechnologiesList of Abbreviations