Policing in America

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Preface


1 The Police in American Society

The Government Structure and Policing

Constitutional Government

Separation of Powers

Principles of Federalism

Police and the Law

Police in the Criminal Justice System

The Roles and Functions of Police in Modern Society

Roles Performed by the Police

Police Activities

Styles of Police Departments

Diversity of the Police Establishment

Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

Justice Department Agencies

Department of Homeland Security

Miscellaneous Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

State Law Enforcement Agencies

State Police and Highway Patrols

Limited-Purpose State Law Enforcement Agencies

Local Law Enforcement Agencies

Summary

References


2 Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Policing in Ancient Times

The Birth of Civilization in Mesopotamia

Civilization in Ancient Egypt

The Rise of Greek City-States

The Roman Empire’s Contribution to Policing

Police Development in England

Medieval England

Early English Law Enforcement

The English Reformers

American Policing in Retrospect

Early American Policing

Policing America: The Modern Era

The Political Entrenchment Phase

The Reform Efforts

Professional Policing Comes to America

Public and Community Relations Return to Policing

The Community Policing Era

The Post-Community Policing Era

Summary

References


3 Police Human Resources

Toward a Theory of Police Selection

Affirmative Action and Police Selection

Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act

Minorities in Policing

Women in Policing

Recruiting Police Officers

Establishing Minimum Selection Standards

The Police Selection Process

The Written Test

The Oral Interview Board

The Assessment Center

Training Police Officers

Basic or Academy Training

Field Training Officer (FTO) Programs

In-Service Training

Police Officer Career Development

Impact of Race and Gender on Police Officer Careers

Summary

References


4 Organization and Management

The Specifics of Police Administration: POSDCORB

Levels of Administration and Supervision

Principles of Organization and Police Administration

Classical Organizational Principles

Problems with Classical Organizational Principles and Traditional Police Administration

Human Relations Organizational Theory

The Hawthorne Studies

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Innovative Management Strategies in Policing

Participative Management

Contingency Management

Total Quality Management

Managing Community Policing

Crime Analysis and COMPSTAT

Crime Analysis

COMPSTAT

Police Collective Bargaining

Contract Negotiation

Summary

References


5 Police Operations

Allocating Police Personnel

Receiving and Managing Calls for Service

Police Patrol

Deploying Patrol Personnel

One-Officer and Two-Officer Patrol Units

Methods and Techniques of Patrol

Foot Patrol

Horse Patrol

Bicycle Patrol

Aircraft Patrol

Watercraft Patrol

Police Patrol Strategies

Routine Preventive Patrol

Maximizing Resources for Directed Patrol

Directed Patrol

Racial Profiling and Traffic Stops

Criminal Investigations

Investigations: A Historical Perspective

The Detective as Secretive Rogue

The Detective as Inquisitor

The Detective as Bureaucrat

The Investigation Process

Preliminary Investigations

Follow-Up or Latent Investigations

Research on the Effectiveness of Investigations

The Traffic Function

The Police and the Traffic Function

Driving-Under-the-Influence Enforcement

Police Paramilitary Units

Distinguishing Police Paramilitary Units from Regular Police

Police Partnerships

Summary

References


6 Police Discretion

The Nature of Police Discretion

Administrative Discretion

Enforcement Discretion

The Police Decision-Making Process

The Decision to Invoke the Criminal Justice Process

Offender Variables

Situation Variables

System Variables

Discretionary Situations in Law Enforcement

Domestic Violence

Vice Crimes

Prostitution and Human Trafficking

Pornography

Gambling

The Investigation of Vice

Policing Hate Crimes

Disenfranchised Populations

The Homeless

The Mentally Ill

Controlling Police Discretion

Understanding the Need for Control Mechanisms

Internal Control Mechanisms

External Control Mechanisms

Summary

References


7 Police Use of Force

The Meaning of Excessive Force

Legal Standards and Police Use of Force

Patterns of Police Use of Force

Determinants of Police Use of Force

Controlling Police Discretion in Situations Involving the Use of Force

Use-of-Force Continuum

Use-of-Force Policy Considerations

Use of Force by Off-Duty Police Officers

Early Warning Systems to Identify Problem Officers

Less-Than-Lethal Force

Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) Spray

Impact Munitions

Conduct Energy Devices

Net Widening and Use of Force

Homicides and Assaults of Police Officers

The Dangers of Policing in Context

Suicide by Cop

Summary

References


8 Police Culture and Behavior

The Psychological Perspective

The Sociological Perspective

Types of Police Officers

The Anthropological Perspective

The Police Subculture

The Law and Police Culture

The Police Worldview

Police Bravery, Autonomy, and Secrecy

Police Isolation and Solidarity

Police Postulates and the Code

Police Subcultures of Violence and Social Context

Police Stress

Sources of Police Stress

Effects of Police Stress

Police Suicide

Alcoholism and Drug Abuse

Mortality and Health Problems

Reducing Police Stress

Summary

References


9 Ethics and Deviance

Sources of Ethics

Justice

Law

Agency Policy

Professional Code of Ethics

Social Norms and Personal Values

A Conflict of Values

Police Crime, Abuse of Authority, Occupational Deviance, and Corruption

Police Crime

Abuse of Authority

Occupational Deviance

Corruption

Bribery

Extortion

Narcotics Violations

The Scope and Forms of Police Corruption

Rotten Apples or Systemic Abuse?

Deviant Behavior

Statistical Definition of Deviance

Absolutist Definition of Deviance

Reactivist Definition of Deviance

Normative Definition of Deviance

Alcohol and Other Drugs of Abuse

Sexual Misconduct

Sexual Harassment

Police Sexual Violence

Stacking-Up, Jacking-Up, and Using Cover Charges

Gratuities

Goldbricking versus Quotas

Summary

References


10 Civil Liability

The Incidence of Civil Suits

Police Fear of Litigation

Lawsuits, Police Perceptions, and Behavior

Frivolous Lawsuits

The Cost of Civil Liability

Litigants in Liability Cases

Police Civil Liability and Tort Law

Strict Tort Liability

Intentional Torts

Wrongful Death

Assault and Battery

False Arrest and Imprisonment

Negligence

Legal Duty

Breach of Duty

Proximate Cause

Damage or Injury

Common Claims of Police Negligence

Defenses to Claims of Police Negligence

Contributory Negligence

Comparative Negligence

Assumption of Risk

Police Liability under Federal Law

Acting under Color of State Law

Violation of a Constitutional Right

Municipal Liability for Failure to Train

Defenses to Section 1983 Lawsuits

Absolute Immunity

Qualified Immunity

Probable Cause

Good Faith

Preventing Liability

Summary

References


11 The Police in the Modern Community

An Overview of Public Perceptions of the Police

Public Attitudes Toward the Police

Individual-Level Variables

Crime Prevention

The Theory of Crime Prevention

Primary Crime Prevention Techniques and Programs

Juvenile Curfews

Community Policing

The Philosophical Dimension

The Strategic Dimension

The Programmatic Dimension

Management Issues

Operational Examples

Summary

References


12 Policing the Drug Problem

The Nature and Extent of the Drug Problem

Drugs and Crime

The Nation’s Drug Strategy

Interdiction

Drug Prevention Programs

Drug Treatment

The Illegal Drug Delivery System

Criminal Organizations

Drug Enforcement Techniques and Programs

Attacking High-Level Distributors

Drug Enforcement at the Retail Level

Community Policing and Drugs

Summary

References


13 Globalization, Terrorism, and Homeland Security

Globalization, Conflict, and Policing

Globalization

Terrorism, Politics, and Police

Defining Terrorism and Its Variations

Weapons of Mass Destruction

Nuclear Weapons

Biological Weapons

Chemical Weapons

Extremist Groups

Extremist Groups and the Middle East

Extremist Groups and the United States

Extremist Groups and Israel

Homeland Security

The National Infrastructure Protection Plan

Homeland Security and Local Policing

Intelligence-Led Policing and Threat Assessment

Fusion Centers

Critical Infrastructure Identification

Enforcement and Critical Infrastructure Security Personnel

Public Education

New York City and Homeland Security

Summary

References

Glossary

Author Index

Subject Index