Ocean Circulation and Climate

Contributors

Acknowledgments

Cover Graphics

Preface

Part I: The Ocean’s Role in the Climate System

Part I: The Ocean's Role in the Climate System

Chapter 1. The Ocean as a Component of the Climate System

Abstract

1 Setting the Scene

2 The Ocean as an Exchanging Earth System Reservoir

3 Atmosphere–Ocean Fluxes and Meridional Transports

4 Global-Scale Surface and Deep Ocean Circulations

5 Large-Scale Modes of Variability Involving the Ocean

6 The Ocean's Role in Past Climate Change

7 The Ocean in the Anthropocene

8 Concluding Thoughts

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2. Paleoclimatic Ocean Circulation and Sea-Level Changes

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Reconstructing Past Ocean States

3 The Oceans in the Quaternary

4 The Deeper Past

5 Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Part II: Ocean Observations

Part II: Ocean Observations

Chapter 3. In Situ Ocean Observations: A Brief History, Present Status, and Future Directions

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Development of Present Observational Capability

3 Emerging and Specialized Ocean Observing Technologies

4 Changes in Data Volume and Coverage and Implication for Synthesis Products

5 The Future: Outstanding Issues and a New Framework for Global Ocean Observing

6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4. Remote Sensing of the Global Ocean Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Ocean General Circulation

3 Variability of the Large-Scale Ocean Circulation

4 Mesoscale Eddies and Fronts

5 Summary and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Part III: Ocean Processes

Part III: Ocean Processes

Chapter 5. Exchanges Through the Ocean Surface

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Air–Sea Exchange Formulae and Climatological Fields

3 Measurement Techniques and Review of Datasets

4 Variability and Extremes

5 Ocean Impacts

6 Outlook and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6. Thermodynamics of Seawater

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Absolute Salinity S_A and Preformed Salinity S_*

3 The Gibbs-Function Approach to Evaluating Thermodynamic Properties

4 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Conservative Temperature Θ

5 The 48-Term Expression for Specific Volume

6 Changes to Oceanographic Practice Under TEOS-10

7 Ocean Modeling Using TEOS-10

8 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7. Diapycnal Mixing Processes in the Ocean Interior

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Mixing Basics

3 Turbulence in and Below the Surface Mixed Layer

4 Mixing in the Ocean Interior

5 Discussion

6 Summary and Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8. Lateral Transport in the Ocean Interior

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Theory of Mass, Tracer, and Vector Transport

3 Observations and Models of Spatial Variations of Eddy Statistics

4 Mesoscale Isoneutral Diffusivity Variation Parameterizations

5 Conclusions and Remaining Questions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 9. Global Distribution and Formation of Mode Waters

Abstract

1 Mode Water Observations

2 Global Water Mass Census of the Upper Ocean

3 Global Distribution of Mode Water

4 Formation of Mode Water

5 PV Framework

6 Mode Water and Climate

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10. Deepwater Formation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Processes of Deepwater Formation

3 Interannual and Decadal Variability in Properties, Formation Rate, and Circulation

4 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Part VI: Ocean Circulation and Water Masses

Part IV: Ocean Circulation and Water Masses

Chapter 11. Conceptual Models of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Wind-Driven Circulation

3 Thermohaline Circulation

4 Transient Behaviour of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation

5 Discussion and Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12. Ocean Surface Circulation

Abstract

1 Observed Near-Surface Currents

2 Geostrophic Surface Circulation

3 Ageostrophic Currents

4 Regional Surface Ocean Dynamics

5 Applications

6 Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13. Western Boundary Currents

Abstract

1 General Features

2 North Atlantic

3 South Atlantic

4 Indian Ocean

5 North Pacific

6 South Pacific

7 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14. Currents and Processes along the Eastern Boundaries

Abstract

1 Introduction and General Background

2 Low-Latitude EBCs

3 Midlatitude EBCs: The EBUS

4 High-Latitude EBCs

5 Climate Variability and the Ocean’s Eastern Boundaries

6 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15. The Tropical Ocean Circulation and Dynamics

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Tropical Pacific Variability

3 Tropical Atlantic Variability

4 Tropical Indian Ocean Variability

5 Progresses in Tropical Climate Predictions

6 Outlooks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16. The Marine Cryosphere

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Sea Ice

3 Land Ice

4 Marine Permafrost

5 Emerging Capabilities

6 Cryospheric Change

7 Summary

References

Chapter 17. The Arctic and Subarctic Oceans/Seas

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Exchanges with the Subpolar Oceans and Beyond

3 Currents and Water Mass Transformations in the Arctic/Subarctic

4 Evidence of Long-term Changes in the Arctic/Subarctic

5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 18. Dynamics of the Southern Ocean Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Progress in Understanding Southern Ocean Dynamics During WOCE (1990–2002)

3 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

4 Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation

5 Southern Ocean Change

6 Summary and Outstanding Challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19. Interocean and Interbasin Exchanges

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Interocean Exchanges at Choke Points

3 Interbasin Exchanges

4 Deep Passages

5 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Part V: Modeling the Ocean Climate System

Part V: Modeling the Ocean Climate System

Chapters in This Part of the Book

The Need for Ongoing Efforts from Future Generations

Chapter 20. Ocean Circulation Models and Modeling

Abstract

1 Scope of this Chapter

2 Physical and Numerical Basis for Ocean Models

3 Ocean Modeling: Science Emerging from Simulations

4 Summary Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 21. Dynamically and Kinematically Consistent Global Ocean Circulation and Ice State Estimates

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Definition

3 Data Assimilation and the Reanalyses

4 Ocean State Estimates

5 Global-Scale Solutions

6 The Uncertainty Problem

7 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 22. Methods and Applications of Ocean Synthesis in Climate Research

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Methods with a Focus on Developments in the Last Decade

3 Applications for Climate Research

4 Assessments of the Impact of New and Future Climate Observing Systems

5 Conclusion and Future Challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 23. Coupled Models and Climate Projections

Abstract

1 Formulation of Coupled Models

2 Flux Adjustments

3 Control Runs

4 Twentieth Century Runs

5 Future Projections

6 North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

7 El Nino/Southern Oscillation

8 Uses of Climate Models

9 Limitations of Climate Models

10 Cutting Edge Issues

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 24. The Ocean’s Role in Modeling and Predicting Seasonal-to-Interannual Climate Variations

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 The Scientific Basis for Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction

3 Development of Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction Systems

4 Closing Remarks: Challenges for the Future Research

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 25. The Ocean's Role in Modeling and Predicting Decadal Climate Variations

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Tropical Pacific and Tropical Atlantic Decadal Variability

3 Description of Extratropical Decadal Variability from Observations

4 The Stochastic Climate Model: The Null Hypothesis for Climate Variability

5 Decadal Predictability

6 Summary and Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 26. Modeling Ocean Biogeochemical Processes and the Resulting Tracer Distributions

Abstract

1 Goals of Ocean Biogeochemical Modeling within Climate Research

2 Concepts and Methods of Biogeochemical Ocean Modeling

3 Model Results, Evaluation, Skill, and Limits, and Model Data Fusion/Data Assimilation

4 Major Marine Carbon Modeling Findings of the Recent Decade

5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Part VI: The Changing Ocean

Part VI: The Changing Ocean

Chapter 27. Sea-Level and Ocean Heat-Content Change

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Concepts of Sea-Level Change

3 Observations of Sea-Level Change

4 Observations of Ocean Heat-Content and Steric Sea-Level Change

5 Understanding Observed Sea-Level Change

6 Prediction and Projections of Future Sea-Level Change

7 Future Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 28. Long-term Salinity Changes and Implications for the Global Water Cycle

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Salinity Observations in the Global Oceans

3 Observed Salinity Variability

4 Observed Long-Term Changes to Ocean Salinity

5 Ocean Salinity—Relationship to the Global Water Cycle

6 Modeling Ocean Salinity Variability and Change

7 Summary and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 29. Ocean Heat Transport

Abstract

1 Background

2 Calculation of Ocean Heat Transport

3 Observation-Based Estimates of Ocean Heat Transport

4 Understanding Mechanisms

5 Ocean Heat Transport Variability

6 Synthesis and Summary

References

Further-Reading

Chapter 30. The Marine Carbon Cycle and Ocean Carbon Inventories

Abstract

1 Introduction and Background to the Marine Carbon Cycle

2 History of Observations and Capacity to Collect Marine Carbon Cycle Measurements

3 The Anthropogenic Perturbation of the Marine Carbonate System

4 Ocean Inventories, Storage Rates, and Uptake of CO₂ and C_ant

5 Ocean Time-Series Validation of Trends in DIC/pCO₂/C_ant

6 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 31. Marine Ecosystems, Biogeochemistry, and Climate

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Phytoplankton, Primary Production, and Climate

3 Climate Impacts on Higher Trophic Levels

4 Ocean Acidification

5 Deoxygenation and Hypoxia

6 Marine Biogeochemical Cycles–Climate Interactions

7 Observational and Research Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Index