Modern Physical Metallurgy

Contents1 The Structure of Atoms and Crystals 1.1 Metallic Characteristics 1.2 The Atom 1.3 The Nomenclature of The Electronic States in An Atom 1.4 The Periodic Table 1.5 Chemical Behaviour and The Metallic Bond 1.6 Arrangement of Atoms in Metals 1.7 Electrons in Metal Crystals 1.8 Metals and Insulators 1.9 Real Crystals and Imperfections 1.10 The Elements of Crystallography 1.11 The Stereographic Projection 2 The Physical Examination of Metals and Alloys 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Metallography 2.3 X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction 2.3.1 The Principles and Methods of X-Ray Diffraction 2.3.2 Neutron Diffraction 2.4 Electron Metallography 2.4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 2.4.2 High-Voltage Electron Microscopy 2.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscope 2.4.4 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (Stem) 2.4.5 Convergent Beam Diffraction Patterns (CBDPS) 2.5 Microanalysis 2.5.1 Electron Microanalysis of Thin Foils 2.5.2 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 2.5.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 2.6 Field Ion Microscopy 2.7 Mechanical Properties 2.7.1 A The Tensile Test 2.7.2 Hardness Test 2.7.3 Impact Testing 2.7.4 Creep 2.7.5 Fatigue 2.8 Physical Properties 2.8.1 Density 84 2.8.2 Thermal Properties 84 2.8.3 Electrical Conductivity, Superconductivity, Semiconductivity 2.8.4 Magnetic Properties 3 Phase Diagrams and Solidification 3.1 The Determination of Phase Diagrams 3.2 The Equilibrium Or Phase Diagram 3.2.1 Complete Solubility in the Solid State 3.2.2 Complete Insolubility in The Solid State 3.2.3 Partial Solubility in the Solid State 3.2.4 Important Phase Diagrams 3.2.5 Limitations of Phase Diagrams 3.3 Constitutional Undercooling 3.4 Metal Structures 3.5 Zone Refining 3.6 Growth of Single Crystals 3.7 Ternary Equilibrium Diagrams 3.7.1 Ternary Diagram For Complete Solid Solubility 3.7.2 Ternary Eutectic 3.7.3 Ternary Diagrams with Solid Solutions 3.7.4 Ternary Diagrams with A Peritectic 3.7.5 Ternary Systems Containing Intermetallic Phases 4 Thermodynamics of Crystals 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Effect of Temperature On Metal Crystals 4.3 The Specific Heat Curve and Transformations 4.4 Heat Content, Entropy and Free Energy 4.5 The Statistical Nature of Entropy 4.6 Free Energy of Transformation 4.7 The Variation of Free Energy With Temperature, and Polymorphism 4.8 Thermodynamics of Lattice Defects 4.9 The Rate of Reaction 4.10 The Mechanism of Phase Changes 4.11 The Equilibrium Diagram 4.11.1 Chemical Potential 4.12 Diffusion 4.12.1 The Mechanisms of Diffusion 4.12.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion 4.13 Anelasticity and Internal Friction 5 The Structure of Alloys 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Primary Substitutional Solid Solutions 5.2.1 The Size Factor Effect 5.2.2 The Electrochemical Effect 5.2.3 The Relative Valency Effect 5.3 The Form of The Liquidus and Solidus Curves 5.4 The Primary Solid Solubility Boundary 5.5 Interstitial Solid Solutions 5.6 Intermediate Phases 5.6.1 Electrochemical Compounds 5.6.2 Size Factor Compounds 5.6.3 Electron Compounds 5.7 Order-Disorder Phenomena 5.7.1 Examples of Ordered Structures 5.7.2 Long and Short Range Order 5.7.3 The Detection of Order 5.7.4 The Influence of Ordering On Properties 5.8 The Magnetic Properties of Metals and Alloys 5.8.1 Dia- and Paramagnetism 5.8.2 Ferromagnetism 5.8.3 Magnetic Alloys 5.8.4 Anti-Ferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 5.9 The Electronic Structure of The Transition Metals 5.10 Semiconductors 5.11 Superconductivity6 Dislocations in Crystals 193 6.1 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 6.1.1 Resolved Shear Stress 6.1.2 The Relation of Slip To Crystal Structure 6.1.3 Law of Critical Resolved Shear Stress 6.1.4 Multiple Slip 6.1.5 The Relation Between Work Hardening and Slip 6.2 Dislocations in Crystals 6.2.1 Edge and Screw Dislocations 6.2.2 The Mechanism of Slip and Climb 6.2.3 Elastic Properties of Dislocations 6.2.4 Imperfect Dislocations 6.3 Dislocations in Close Packed Crystals 6.3.1 Extended Dislocations 6.3.2 Sessile Dislocations 6.3.3 The Thompson Reference Tetrahedron 6.4 Dislocations in Hexagonal Structures 6.5 Dislocations in BCC Lattices 6.6 Dislocations in Ordered Structures 7 Observation of Crystal Defects 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Crystal Growth 7.3 Direct Observation of Dislocations 7.3.1 Etch Pits 7.3.2 Dislocation Decoration 7.3.3 Electron Microscopy 7.3.4 Weak Beam Microscopy 7.4 Arrangements of Dislocations in Crystals 7.5 Origin of Dislocations 8 Deformation of Metals and Alloys 8.1 Dislocation Mobility 8.2 Dislocation Source Operation 8.3 Yielding and Dislocation Multiplication 8.4 The Yield Point and Related Effects 8.4.1 Evidence For the Influence of Impurity Atoms 8.4.2 The Formation of 'Atmospheres' of Solute Atoms Round Dislocations 8.4.3 The Effect of Atmospheres On Plastic Flow 8.5 The Interaction of Solute Atoms with Dislocations 8.6 Variation of Yield Stress with Temperature 8.7 Other Types of Solute Atom-Dislocation Interaction 8.8 The Kinetics of Strain Ageing 8.9 Influence of Grain Boundaries On the Plastic Properties Of Metals 8.10 Mechanical Twinning 8.10.1 Twinning Crystallography 8.10.2 Nucleation and Growth 8.10.3 The Effect of Impurities On Twinning 8.10.4 The Effect of Prestrain On Twinnning 8.10.5 Dislocation Mechanism of Twinning 8.10.6 Twinning and Fracture 9 Point Defects in Crystals 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The Production of Vacancies 9.2.1 Vacancy Production By Bombardment with High Energy Particles 9.2.2 Vacancies Produced By Cold Work 9.2.3 Vacancies Produced By Oxidation 9.3 The Effect of Vacancies On The Physical and Mechanical Properties 9.4 The Nucleation of Point Defect Clusters 9.5 Electron Microscope Observations of Vacancy Defects 9.5.1 Quenching 9.5.2 Nuclear Irradiation 9.5.3 Cold Work 9.5.4 Oxidation 9.6 Annealing of Clustered Defects 9.7 Point Defect Hardening 9.8 Radiation Growth and Swelling 9.9 Vacancy Defects in Alloys 9.10 Radiation-Induced Segregation, Diffusion and Precipitation 9.11 Radiation and Ordered Alloys 10 Work Hardening and Annealing 10.1 Work Hardening 10.1.1 Introduction 10.1.2 Three-Stage Hardening 10.1.3 Stage I 10.1.4 Stage II 10.1.5 Stage Hi and the Phenomenon of Work Softening 10.1.6 The Influence of Temperature On The Flow Stress 10.1.7 Work Hardening in Polycrystals 10.1.8 Dispersion-Hardened Alloys 10.1.9 Work Hardening in Ordered Alloys 10.2 Preferred Orientation 10.3 Texture Hardening 10.4 Macroscopic Plasticity 10.4.1 Effective Stress and Strain 10.5 Annealing 10.5.1 Introduction 10.5.2 Recovery 10.5.3 Recrystallization 10.5.4 Grain Growth 10.5.5 Annealing Twins 10.5.6 Recrystallization Textures 37811 Phase Transformations I - Precipitation Hardening Transformation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Precipitation From Supersaturated Solid Solution 11.3 Changes in Properties Accompanying Precipitation 11.4 Tructural Changes 11.5 Some Common Precipitation Systems 11.5.1 Aluminium-Copper 11.5.2 Aluminium-Silver 11.5.3 Complex Systems 11.5.4 Nickel-Chromium-Aluminium 11.6 Mechanisms of Hardening 11.6.1 Coherency Strain Hardening 11.6.2 Chemical Hardening 11.6.3 Dispersion Hardening 11.7 Hardening in Aluminium-Copper Alloys 11.8 Vacancies and Precipitation 11.9 Duplex Ageing 11.10 Particle Coarsening 11.11 Spinodal Decomposition 11.12 Dispersion-Hardened Alloys 11.13 Fibre Strengthening 11.14 Superalloys 12 Phase Transformations II - The Eutectoid Transformation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Austenite-Pearlite Reaction 12.2.1 Factors Affecting Nucleation and Growth 12.2.2 Mechanism and Morphology 12.2.3 Hypo-Eutectoid Steels 12.2.4 The Influence of Alloying Elements 12.3 The Austenite-Martensite Reaction 12.3.1 The Crystallography of The Martensite Transformation 12.3.2 Mechanism of Martensite Formation 12.3.3 The Kinetics of Formation 12.4 The Austenite-Bainite Transformation 12.5 Tempering and Heat Treatment 12.6 Thermo-Mechanical Treatments 12.7 Commercial Steels and Cast Iron 12.7.1 Plain Carbon Steels 12.7.2 Alloy Steels 12.7.3 Maraging Steels 12.7.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA) 12.7.5 Dual-Phase Steels 12.7.6 Cast Irons 13 Creep and Fatigue 13.1 Creep 13.1.1 Creep Mechanisms 13.1.2 Metallurgical Factors Affecting Creep 13.1.3 Deformation Mechanism Maps 13.1.4 Superplasticity 13.2 Fatigue 13.2.1 Introduction 13.2.2 Engineering Considerations of Fatigue 13.2.2.1 Variables Affecting The Fatigue Life 13.2.3 Metallurgical Factors Affecting Fatigue 13.2.4 The Structural Changes Accompanying Fatigue 13.2.4.1 Fatigue Hardening 13.2.5 The Formation of Fatigue Cracks and Fatigue Failure 13.2.6 Fatigue At Elevated Temperatures14 Fracture 14.1 Brittle Fracture 14.1.1 Introduction 14.1.2 Griffith Micro-Crack Criterion 14.1.3 Micro-Crack Formation By Plastic Glide 14.1.4 The Mechanism of Fracture 14.1.5 Factors Affecting Brittleness 14.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement 14.3 Fracture Toughness 14.4 Intergranular Fracture 14.5 Ductile Fracture 14.6 Fracture At Elevated Temperatures 14.7 Rupture 14.8 Fracture Mechanism Maps 14.9 Fatigue Crack Growth15 Oxidation and Corrosion 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Thermodynamics of Oxidation 15.3 Kinetics of Oxidation 15.4 The Structure of Oxides 15.5 Wagner's Theory of Oxidation 15.6 Parameters Affecting Oxidation Rates 15.7 Oxidation Resistance 15.8 Intergranular Voiding-Stress V Vacancy Injection 15.9 Breakaway Oxidation 15.10 Aqueous Corrosion 15.11 The Electrochemical Series 15.12 Corrosion Protection 15.13 Corrosion Failures Appendix: Units and Useful Factors Index