Invitation to Psychology
- 2nd Edition - October 22, 2013
- Imprint: Academic Press
- Authors: John P. Houston, Helen Bee, David C. Rimm
- Language: English
- eBook ISBN:9 7 8 - 1 - 4 8 3 2 - 6 2 9 7 - 0
Invitation to Psychology provides an introduction to fundamental concepts in psychology. It seeks to address the need of both teachers and students by offering two different kinds… Read more
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Invitation to Psychology provides an introduction to fundamental concepts in psychology. It seeks to address the need of both teachers and students by offering two different kinds of chapters. The first variety covers the basic data and research within each of the traditional areas of psychology. In these "basic" chapters, the authors provide up-to-date and complete coverage of important developments in each area. The second type of chapter is innovative. These "exploring" chapters examine some of the practical applications and implications of the findings discussed in the basic chapters. These describe how basic psychological data are being used in the outside world, and discuss ongoing, often controversial explorations into some frontier areas of psychology. In other words, information about explorations and applications that is often scattered through the pages of other texts is brought together into systematic chapters in this text. The dual-chapter approach helps resolve the dilemma of differing expectations of teachers and students. Key topics covered include the definition of psychology; the psychological basis of behavior; sensation and perception; states of awareness; learning, memory, and cognition; motivation and emotion; abnormal psychology and social behavior.
1 What is Psychology?
The Diversity of Psychology
Areas of Specialization
Physiological
Sensation and Perception
Learning and Conditioning
Memory
Cognition
Motivation
Emotion
Development
Personality
Assessment
Social
Abnormal
Clinical and Counseling
School
Industrial and Environmental
Percentages: Who Does What?
APA Divisions
Defining Psychology and Its Goals
A Definition
Goals
Methods of Psychology
Experiments
Naturalistic Observation
Test
Interviews and Questionnaires
Case Histories
Correlation
Levels of Analysis
Points of View
Psychological Perspectives
Fields versus Levels
Two Kinds of Chapters
Summary
Readings
2 The Physiological Basis of Behavior
Level One: The Neuron
The Neuron: The Basic Unit
What Does a Neuron Look Like?
How a Neuron Works
Synaptic Events and Neurotransmitters
Level Two: Functional Groups of Neurons
Types of Groups
Afferent, Efferent, and Connecting Groups
Level Three: The Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Central Nervous System: The Brain and the Spinal Cord
The Brain
Techniques for Brain Study
The Hindbrain
The Midbrain
The Forebrain
The Cortex and Behavior
Our Senses and the Cortex
Movement and the Cortex
Learning, Thinking, and the Cortex
Language and the Cortex
Split-Brain Experiments
The Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland
The Thyroid Gland
The Adrenal Glands
Behavioral Genetics
Chromosomes and Genes
Dominant and Recessive Genes
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Twin Studies
Selective Breeding and Inbred Strains
Heredity, Environment, and Evolution
Summary
Readings
3 Sensation and Perception
Sensory Thresholds
Specialized Receptors
Absolute Threshold
Difference Threshold
Sensory Adaptation
The Minor Senses
Dominant and Minor Senses
The Skin Sensors
Position Sensors
Smell
Taste
The Major Senses I: Hearing
Sound Waves
The Components of the Ear
Functions of the Ear
The Major Senses II: Vision
Light
The Eye
The Retina: Rods and Cones
Dark Adaptation
Color Vision
Perception and Experience
Perception Isn't Perfect: Illusions
The Ponzo Illusion
The Moon Illusion
The Gamma Phenomenon
Additional Illusions
Illusions and Delusions
Two Perceptual Processes
Selective Attention
Organization
Information Processing: The Perception of Patterns, Movement, and Space
Pattern Recognition
Perception of Movement
Depth Perception
Depth Perception: Innate or Learned?
Perceptual Constancy
Perceptual Expectations
Perceptual Development
Summary
Readings
4 Exploring States of Awareness
ESP
Definition
Personal versus Scientific
Observations
Types of ESP
Reasons for Caution
Kirlian Photography
Give It a Chance
Sleep and Dreams
Sleep as an Active Process
Eye Movements and Brain Waves
Patterns of Sleeping and Dreaming
Dream Theories
Hypnopaedia
The Need to Sleep
The Need to Dream
How Long Does a Dream Take?
Who Needs How Much Sleep?
Hypnosis
Entering the Hypnotic Trance
The Hypnotic Trance
Hypnotic Effects
Role Playing
Who Can Be Hypnotized?
The Uses of Hypnosis
Drug Use
Types of Drugs
The Variability of Drug Reactions
What Kinds of People Abuse
Drugs?
Meditation
What Is Meditation?
How Do We Meditate?
What are the Effects of Meditation?
How Does It "Work"?
Summary
Readings
5 Learning
A Definition of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov's Experiments
The Four Essential Elements of Classical Conditioning
Temporal Arrangements of the CS and UCS
Further Examples from the Laboratory
Classical Conditioning of Human Emotions
Masochism and Classical Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning
Introduction
Shaping
Three Types of Instrumental Conditioning
Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, and Punishment
Classical and Instrumental Conditioning Compared: Biofeedback and Reinforcement
Distinction 1: Voluntary versus Involuntary
Distinction 2: Reinforcement versus No Reinforcement
Verbal Learning
Free Recall
Serial Learning
Paired-Associate Learning
Verbal Learning and Conditioning Compared
Basic Conditioning and Learning Phenomena
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Discrimination
Conclusion
Reinforcement
Delay of Reinforcement
Amount of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement and the Extinction Effect
Secondary Reinforcement
Summary
Readings
6 Memory
Learning and Memory: Intertwined Processes
The Definition of Retention
Learning and Retention Together
Measures of Retention
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
A Comparison of the Three Measures
Recognition versus Recall
The Three Components of Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Six Theories of Memory
1: Interference Theory
2: Decay Theory
3: Motivated Forgetting
4: Information Processing
5: Consolidation Theory and Retrograde Amnesia
6: Organization and the Structural Approach
A Final Word about Memory Theory
Summary
Readings
7 Cognition
The Emerging Field of Cognition: Five Definitions
Topics in the Field of Cognition
Language
The Structure of Language
Grammar
The Acquisition of Language
Theories of Language Acquisition
Chimpanzees and Language
Language and Thought
Concept Formation
Definition
Concepts and Language
A Laboratory Example
Theories of Concept Formation
Problem Solving
Definition of a Problem
Examples of Problems
Four Stages of Problem Solving
Trial and Error versus Insight
Problems in Problem Solving
Summary
Readings
8 Exploring Learning, Memory, and Cognition
Applications of Classical Conditioning
The Control of Bed Wetting
The Polygraph or "Lie Detector"
The Control of Blood Pressure
Fears, Phobias, and Systematic Desensitization
"Bad Habits": Coyotes and People
Applications of Instrumental Conditioning
Train that Dog
Behavior Modification
Biofeedback Training
Teaching Machines and Computer Instruction
Improving Memory
First: Pay Attention
Repeat That, Please
Organize, If You Can
Mnemonic Techniques
Coined Phrases
Interacting Images
Invent a Story
The Method of Loci
Rhymes and Mnemonics
Conclusion
Summary
Readings
9 Motivation
The Definition of Motivation
Motivation Is a Diffuse Concept
Theories of Motivation
Drive Theory
Incentive Theory: Pull versus Push
Optimal-Level-of-Arousal Theory
Modern Instinct Theory
Imprinting
Unconscious Motivation
Maslow's Need Hierarchy
Biological Motives I: Hunger
Homeostasis
The Physiology of Hunger: A Two-Part Search
Internal Stimuli for Hunger
Hypothalamic Control
External Stimuli
Biological Motives II: Thirst
Cellular Dehydration
Reduced Blood Volume
What about Dry Mouth
Biological Motives III: Sex
Sex is Different
The Study of Sex Has Been Neglected
Animals and Humans: The Role of Learning
Sensory-Seeking Motives
Complex Human Motives
A Variety of Needs
The Need to Achieve
The Need to Affiliate
Summary
Readings
10 Emotion
The Study of Emotion
Classifying and Identifying Emotions
Reason versus Emotion
Definitions of Emotion
The Physiology of Emotion
Theories of Emotion
Dozens of Theories
The James-Lange Theory
Cannon's Theory
The Cognitive Theory
Innate versus Learned Expression
Nonverbal Expression of Emotion
The "Other" Language of Emotion
Eye Contact
Movements, Posture, and Gestures
Personal Space
Double-Edged Messages
Anxiety
Introduction
Definitions of Anxiety
The Causes of Anxiety
Conclusion
Frustration
A Definition and Some Examples
Frustration by Delay
Frustration by Obstacles
Conflict
Definition and Examples
Types of Conflicts
Behavior in Conflict
Conclusion
Summary
Readings
11 Exploring Everyday Emotions and Motives
Introduction
Can We Be Too Motivated?
What Does Anxiety Do to Learning?
Anxiety and College Performance
Conclusion
Dealing with Anxiety
Planned Assertive Coping
Unplanned Coping: The Defense Mechanisms
Conclusion
Dealing with Frustration
Introduction
Planned Methods of Coping
Assertion Training
Coping with Unsolvable Problems
Unplanned Reactions to Frustration I: Aggression
The Frustration-Aggression
Hypothesis
Adaptive versus Maladaptive
Aggression
Direct versus Indirect Aggression
Learned Aggression?
Conclusion
II: Helplessness and Depression
Learned Helplessness
Reversing Depression
Conclusion
III: Other Unplanned Reactions to Frustration
Regression
Fantasy
Dealing with Stress
Causes and Consequences of Stress
Coping with Stress
Sex
Introduction
What Does Pornography Do?
The "Sexual Revolution"
Individual Differences
Homosexuality
Sex Stereotypes
Summary
Readings
12 Development over the Life Span
Defining Development
1: Development as Maturation
2: Development as Learning
3: Development as Synthesis
The Prenatal Period
External Influences during Gestation
Infancy: The First Two Years
Characteristics of the Infant at Birth
Motor Development during the First Two Years
Cognitive Development during the First Two Years
Social and Emotional Development during the First Two Years
Theoretical Synthesis
The Preschooler: From Two to Five
Physical Growth from Two to Five
Cognition and Language from Two to Five
Social and Emotional Development from Two to Five
Synthesis
The Early School Years: From Five to Twelve
Physical Development at School Age
Cognitive Development and Language at School Age
Social and Emotional Development at School Age
Synthesis
Adolescence: From Twelve to Eighteen
Physical Development at Adolescence
Cognitive Development at Adolescence
Social and Emotional Development at Adolescence
Synthesis
Adulthood and Aging
Physical Development during Adulthood and Aging
Cognitive Development during Adulthood and Aging
Social and Emotional Development during Adulthood and Aging
Sex and Social Class Differences in the Stages of Adulthood
Synthesis
Summary
Readings
13 Exploring Developmental Issues
Child Abuse
The Scope of the Problem
Developmental and Social Issues
The Effects of Abuse on the Child
The Causes of Abuse
Prediction and Treatment
Divorce
The Scope of the Problem
The Developmental and Social Issues
The Effects of Divorce on the Child
Working Mothers
The Scope of the Situation
Where are the Children?
The Developmental and Social Issues
What are the Effects on the Children?
Sex Differences and Sex-Role Stereotypes
The Developmental Issues
Are There Any Sex Differences?
Why Is There So Much Disagreement about Sex Differences?
How Can We Explain the Sex Differences?
Sex-Role Stereotypes
Basic Research and Applied Problems
Summary
Readings
14 Personality Theory
Subdivisions of the Area
Definition of Personality
Approaches to Personality
1: Freudian Theory
The Elements of Personality
The Unconscious
The Dynamics of Personality
Personality Development
Objections to Freudian Theory
Neo-Freudians
2: The Trait Approach
Basic Assumptions
Types: A Dead End
Rating Scales and Profiles
Self-rating versus Rating by Others
How Many Important Traits are There?
Additional Problems
Rotter's I-E Scale
3: Personality as Learned Behavior
The General Learning Approach
Miller and Dollard
Skinner's Interpretation
Bandura's Emphasis
Rotter's Approach
Objections
4: Self Theories
The Nature of the Self Approach
Rogers' Self Theory
Maslow's Theory
Criticisms
Conclusion
Summary
Readings
15 Assessing Personality and Behavior
The Problems of Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Validity
Assessment of Personality
The Traditional Assessment Procedures
Behavioral Assessment
Measures of Intellectual Ability
Definitions of Intelligence
The Measurement of Intelligence
Reliability and Validity of IQ Tests
Some Things IQ Tests are Not
Achievement Tests
The Difference between Intelligence and Achievement Tests
Summary
Readings
16 Exploring the Uses and Misuses of Tests
Personality Assessment
Some Major Uses
Some Problems with Personality Assessment
Assessment of Intellectual Performance
The Benefits of IQ and Achievement Testing in the Schools
Some of the Problems
Uses and Misuses of IQ Tests in the Schools: Some Conclusions
The Special Case of Racial Differences in IQ
The Genetic Component in IQ
Racial Differences
The Environmental Alternative
Conclusions about Racial Differences in IQ
Summary
Readings
17 Abnormal Psychology
What is Abnormality?
Contemporary Views of Abnormality
Psychodynamic Approaches
Behavioral Approaches
Existential-Humanistic Approaches
Biological-Medical Approaches
Categories of Abnormal Behavior
The Neuroses
Types of Neuroses
The Psychoses
Schizophrenia
Types of Schizophrenia
What Causes Schizophrenia?
Mood Disorders
What Causes Mood Disorders?
Organic Disorders
Some Disorders Caused by Brain Damage
Epilepsy
Mental Retardation
Psychophysiological Disorders
Personality Disorders
Summary
Readings
18 Treating Psychological Problems
The Psychological Therapies
A Psychodynamic Approach: Psychoanalysis
Existential-Humanistic Therapies
Behavior Therapy
Behavioral Treatments
The Eclectic Approach
Group Treatment
Medical Approaches
The Use of Drugs
Physical Treatments
Psychosurgery
Summary
Readings
19 Social Behavior
What is Social Psychology?
How Do We Form Impressions of Others?
Nonverbal Cues
Attribution Theory
The Basis of Impression Formation
How are We Attracted by Others?
Balance Theories of Attraction
Learning Theories of Attraction
Some Major Findings on Attraction
Putting the Elements of Attraction Together
What are Attitudes, Where Do They Come from, and How Do They Change?
How Do Attitudes Develop?
Persuasion and Attitude Change
Attitudes, Attribution, and Attraction
Small Groups and Their Effects
Some Effects of Groups on Individuals
Leadership
Back to the Basic Processes
Summary
Readings
20 Exploring Social Psychology
Racial Prejudice
Is Prejudice on Its Way Out?
Where Does Racial Prejudice Come from?
Reducing or Eliminating Prejudice: Can It Be Done?
Some Effects of Mass Media
Effects of the Media on Political Attitudes and Behavior
Effects of TV Violence on Aggression
The Effects of TV Violence on Beliefs and Ideas
The Effects of TV Violence on Feelings
Putting It All Together
The Jury
The Jury's Impression of the Defendant
The Persuasiveness of the Evidence and the Presentation of the Evidence
The Deliberative Process
A Verdict on Juries
Summary
Readings
Statistics Appendix
The Role of Statistics A-1
Descriptive Statistics A-1
Normal Frequency
Distribution A-8
Correlation Coefficient as a Descriptive Statistic A-9
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-8
- Edition: 2
- Published: October 22, 2013
- Imprint: Academic Press
- Language: English
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