Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing

1. Introduction 1.1 Surface Engineering 1.2 Thin Film Processing 1.3 Process Documentation 1.4 Safety and Environmental Concerns 1.5 Units 1.6 Summary2. Substrate (""Real"") Surfaces and Surface Modification 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Materials and Fabrication 2.3 Atomic Structure and Atom-Particle Interactions 2.4 Characterization of Surfaces and Near-Surface Regions 2.5 Bulk Properties 2.6 Modification of Substrate Surfaces 2.7 Summary 3. The Low-Pressure Gas and Vacuum Processing Environment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Gases and Vapors 3.3 Gas-Surface Interactions 3.4 Vacuum Environment 3.5 Vacuum Processing Systems 3.6 Vacuum Pumping 3.7 Vacuum and Plasma Compatible Materials 3.8 Assembly 3.9 Evaluating Vacuum System Performance 3.10 Purchasing a Vacuum System for PVD Processing 3.11 Cleaning of Vacuum Surfaces 3.12 System-Related Contamination 3.13 Process-Related Contamination 3.14 Treatment of Specific Materials 3.15 Safety Aspects of Vacuum Technology 3.16 Summary4. The Low-Pressure Plasma Processing Environment 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Plasma 4.3 Plasma-Surface Interactions 4.4 Configurations for Generating Plasmas 4.5 Ion and Plasma Sources 4.6 Plasma Processing Systems 4.7 Plasma-Related Contamination 4.8 Some Safety Aspects of Plasma Processing 4.9 Summary5. Vacuum Evaporation and Vacuum Deposition 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Thermal Vaporization 5.3 Thermal Vaporization Sources 5.4 Transport of Vaporized Material 5.5 Condensation of Vaporized Material 5.6 Materials for Evaporation 5.7 Vacuum Deposition Configurations 5.8 Process Monitoring and Control 5.9 Contamination from the Vaporization Source 5.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Deposition 5.11 Some Applications of Vacuum Deposition 5.12 Gas Evaporation and Ultrafine Particles 5.13 Other Processes 5.14 Summary6. Physical Sputtering and Sputter Deposition (Sputtering) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Physical Sputtering 6.3 Sputtering Configurations 6.4 Transport of the Sputter-Vaporized Species 6.5 Condensation of the Sputtered Species 6.6 Sputter Deposition Geometrics 6.7 Targets and Target Materials 6.8 Process Monitoring and Control 6.9 Contamination Due to Sputtering 6.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sputter Deposition 6.11 Some Applications of Sputter Deposition 6.12 Summary 7. Arc Vapor Deposition 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Arcs 7.3 Arc Source Configurations 7.4 Reactive Arc Deposition 7.5 Arc Materials 7.6 Arc Vapor Deposition System 7.7 Process Monitoring and Control 7.8 Contamination Due to Arc Vaporization 7.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Arc Vapor Deposition 7.10 Some Applications of Arc Vapor Deposition 7.11 Summary8. Ion Plating and Ion Beam Assisted Deposition 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Stages of Ion Plating 8.3 Sources of Depositing and Reacting Species 8.4 Sources of Energetic Bombarding Species 8.5 Sources of Accelerating Potential 8.6 Some Plasma-Based Ion Plating Configurations 8.7 Ion Beam Assisted Deposition (IBAD) 8.8 Process Monitoring and Control 8.9 Contamination on the Ion Plating Process 8.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ion Plating 8.11 Some Applications of Ion Plating 8.12 A Note on Ionized Cluster Beam (ICB) Deposition 8.13 Summary9. Atomistic Film Growth and Some Growth-Related Film Properties 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Condensation and Nucleation 9.3 Interface Formation 9.4 Film Growth 9.5 Reactive and Quasi-Reactive Deposition of Films of Compounded Materials 9.6 Post Deposition Processing and Changes 9.7 Deposition of Unique Materials and Structures 9.8 Summary10. Film Characterization and Some Basic Film Properties 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Objectives of Characterization 10.3 Types of Characterization 10.4 Stages and Degree of Characterization 10.5 Some Film Properties 10.6 Summary11. Adhesion and Deadhesion 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Origin of Adhesion and Adhesion Failure (Deadhesion) 11.3 Adhesion of Atomistically Deposited Inorganic Films 11.4 Adhesion Failure (Deadhesion) 11.5 Adhesion Testing 11.6 Designing for Good Adhesion 11.7 Failure Analysis 11.8 Summary12. Cleaning 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Gross Cleaning 12.3 Specific Cleaning 12.4 Application of Fluids 12.5 Removal of Particulate Contamination 12.6 Rinsing 12.7 Drying, Outgassing, and Outdiffusion 12.8 Cleaning Lines 12.9 Handling and Storage/Transportation 12.10 Evaluation and Monitoring of Cleaning 12.11 In Situ Cleaning 12.12 Contamination of the Film Surface 12.13 Safety 12.14 Summary13. External Processing Environment 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Reduction of Contamination 13.3 Materials 13.4 Body Coverings 13.5 Processing Areas 13.6 SummaryAPPENDIX 1: Reference Material APPENDIX 2: Transfer of Technology from R&D to Manufacturing Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Used in Surface Engineering