Handbook of Fillers

1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Expectations from fillers1.2 Typical filler properties1.3 Definitions1.4 Classification1.5 Markets and trendsReferences2 SOURCES OF FILLERS, THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES, AND MORPHOLOGY 2.1 Particulate Fillers 2.1.1 Aluminum flakes and powders2.1.2 Aluminum borate whiskers2.1.3 Aluminum nitride2.1.4 Aluminum oxide 2.1.5 Aluminum trihydroxide2.1.6 Anthracite2.1.7 Antimonate of sodium2.1.8 Antimony pentoxide2.1.8 Antimony trioxide2.1.10 Ammonium octamolybdate2.1.11 Apatite2.1.12 Ash, fly2.1.13 Attapulgite2.1.14 Barium metaborate2.1.15 Barium sulfate2.1.16 Barium & strontium sulfates2.1.17 Barium titanate2.1.18 Bentonite2.1.19 Beryllium oxide2.1.20 Boron nitride2.1.21 Calcium carbonate2.1.22 Calcium fluoride2.1.23 Calcium hydroxide2.1.24 Calcium phosphate2.1.25 Calcium silicate2.1.26 Calcium sulfate2.1.27 Carbon black 2.1.28 Carbonyl iron powder2.1.29 Cellulose particles2.1.30 Ceramic beads2.1.31 Chitosan2.1.32 Clamshell powder2.1.33 Clay2.1.34 Cobalt powder2.1.35 Copper2.1.36 Corn cob powder2.1.37 Cristobalite2.1.38 Diatomaceous earth2.1.39 Dolomite2.1.40 Eggshell filler2.1.41 Ferrites2.1.42 Feldspar2.1.43 Gandolinium oxide2.1.44 Glass beads2.1.45 Gold2.1.46 Graphene2.1.47 Graphene oxide2.1.48 Graphite2.1.49 Ground tire powder2.1.50 Halloysite2.1.51 Huntite2.1.52 Hydrous calcium silicate2.1.53 Illite2.1.54 Iron2.1.55 Iron oxide 2.1.56 Kaolin2.1.57 Lead oxide 2.1.58 Lithopone 2.1.59 Magnesium oxide 2.1.60 Magnesium hydroxide 2.1.61 Magnetite2.1.62 Metal-containing conductive materials2.1.63 Mica2.1.64 Molybdenum2.1.65 Molybdenum disulfide2.1.66 Molybdic oxide2.1.67 Nanofillers2.1.68 Nickel2.1.69 Nickel oxide2.1.70 Nickel zinc ferrite2.1.71 Nutshell powder2.1.72 Perlite2.1.73 Polymeric fillers2.1.74 Potassium hexatitanate whiskers2.1.75 Pumice2.1.76 Pyrophyllite2.1.77 Rubber particles2.1.78 Sepiolite2.1.79 Silica 2.1.79.1 Fumed silica2.1.79.2 Fused silica 2.1.79.3 Precipitated silica2.1.79.4 Quartz (Tripoli) 2.1.79.5 Sand 2.1.79.6 Silica gel2.1.80 Silicon carbide2.1.81 Silicon nitride2.1.82 Silver powder and flakes2.1.83 Slate flour 2.1.84 Talc 2.1.85 Titanium dioxide2.1.86 Tungsten 2.1.87 Vermiculite 2.1.88 Wollastonite 2.1.89 Wood flour and similar materials2.1.90 Zeolites 2.1.91 Zinc borate 2.1.92 Zinc oxide 2.1.93 Zinc stannate 2.1.94 Zinc sulfide 2.2 Fibers 2.2.1 Aramid fibers2.2.2 Carbon fibers 2.2.3 Carbon nanotubes2.2.4 Cellulose fibers 2.2.5 Glass fibers 2.2.6 Other fibers References 3 FILLERS TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND PROCESSING 3.1 Filler packaging3.2 External transportation3.3 Filler receiving 3.4 Storage 3.5 In-plant conveying 3.6 Semi-bulk unloading systems3.7 Bag handling equipment 3.8 Blending 3.9 Feeding 3.10 Drying 3.11 Dispersion References4 QUALITY CONTROL OF FILLERS 4.1 Absorption coefficient4.2 Acidity or alkalinity of water extract4.3 Ash content 4.4 Brightness 4.5 Coarse particles4.6 Color 4.7 CTAB surface area4.8 Density 4.9 Electrical properties4.10 Extractables 4.11 Fines content 4.12 Heating loss 4.13 Heat stability 4.14 Hegman fineness 4.15 Hiding power 4.16 Iodine absorption number 4.17 Lightening power of white pigments4.18 Loss on ignition 4.19 Mechanical and related properties4.20 Oil absorption 4.21 Particle size 4.22 Pellet strength 4.23 pH 4.24 Resistance to light4.25 Resistivity of aqueous extract 4.26 Sieve residue4.27 Soluble matter 4.28 Specific surface area4.29 Sulfur content 4.30 Tamped volume 4.31 Tinting strength 4.32 Volatile matter 4.33 Water content 4.34 Water-soluble sulfates, chlorides and nitratesReferences 5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLERS AND FILLED MATERIALS 5.1 Density5.2 Particle size5.3 Particle size distribution5.4 Particle shape 5.5 Particle surface morphology and roughness5.6 Specific surface area 5.7 Porosity 5.8 Particle-particle interaction and spacing5.9 Agglomerates 5.10 Aggregates and structure5.11 Flocculation and sedimentation5.12 Aspect ratio 5.13 Packing volume 5.14 pH5.15 Zeta-potential5.16 Surface energy5.17 Moisture 5.18 Absorption of liquids and swelling5.19 Permeability and barrier properties 5.20 Oil absorption 5.21 Hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties5.22 Optical properties 5.23 Refractive index 5.24 Friction properties 5.25 Hardness 5.26 Intumescent properties5.27 Thermal conductivity 5.28 Thermal expansion coefficient5.29 Thermal degradation5.30 Melting temperature5.31 Glass transition temperature 5.32 Electrical properties 5.33 Relative permittivity5.34 Electrical percolation5.35 EMI shielding5.36 Magnetic properties 5.37 Shape memoryReferences 6 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLERS AND FILLED MATERIALS 6.1 Reactivity6.2 Chemical groups on the filler surface6.3 Filler surface modification 6.4 Filler modification and material properties6.5 Resistance to various chemicals 6.6 Cure in fillers presence 6.7 Polymerization in fillers presence6.8 Grafting 6.9 Crosslink density 6.10 Reaction kinetics 6.11 Molecular mobility References 7 ORGANIZATION OF INTERFACE AND MATRIX CONTAINING FILLERS 7.1 Particle distribution in matrix7.2 Orientation of filler particles in a matrix7.3 Voids 7.4 Matrix-filler interaction7.5 Chemical interactions 7.6 Other interactions 7.7 Interphase organization7.8 Interfacial adhesion 7.9 Interphase thickness 7.10 Filler-chain links 7.11 Chain dynamics 7.12 Bound rubber 7.13 Debonding 7.14 Mechanisms of reinforcement 7.15 Benefits of organization on molecular levelReferences 8 THE EFFECT OF FILLERS ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLED MATERIALS 8.1 Tensile strength and elongation8.2 Tensile yield stress 8.3 Mullins’ effect8.4 Elastic modulus 8.5 Flexural strength and modulus 8.6 Impact resistance 8.7 Hardness 8.8 Tear strength8.9 Compressive strength8.10 Fracture resistance 8.11 Wear 8.12 Friction 8.13 Abrasion 8.14 Scratch resistance8.15 Fatigue 8.16 Failure 8.17 Adhesion 8.18 Thermal deformation8.19 Shrinkage 8.20 Warpage 8.21 Compression set8.22 Load transfer 8.23 Residual stress 8.24 Creep References 9 THE EFFECT OF FILLERS ON RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLED MATERIALS 9.1 Viscosity9.2 Flow 9.3 Flow induced filler particle orientation9.4 Torque 9.5 Viscoelasticity9.6 Dynamic mechanical behavior9.7 Complex viscosity 9.8 Shear viscosity 9.9 Elongational viscosity9.10 Melt rheology 9.11 Yield value References 10 MORPHOLOGY OF FILLED SYSTEMS 10.1 Crystallinity10.2 Crystallization behavior10.3 Nucleation 10.4 Crystal size 10.5 Spherulites 10.6 Transcrystallinity10.7 Orientation References 11 EFFECT OF FILLERS ON EPOSURE TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS 11.1 Irradiation11.2 UV radiation 11.3 Temperature 11.4 Liquids and vapors11.5 Stabilization 11.6 Degradable materialsReferences 12 FLAMMABILITY OF FILLED MATERIALS 12.1 Definitions12.2 Limiting oxygen index12.3 Ignition and flame spread rate12.4 Heat transmission rate 12.5 Decomposition and combustion12.6 Emission of gaseous components12.7 Smoke 12.8 Char 12.9 RecyclingReferences 13 INFLUENCE OF FILLERS ON PERFORMANCE OF OTHER ADDITIVES AND VICE VERSA 13.1 Adhesion promoters13.2 Antistatics 13.3 Blowing agents 13.4 Catalysts 13.5 Compatibilizers13.6 Coupling agents 13.7 Dispersing agents and surface active agents13.8 Flame retardants 13.9 Impact modifiers 13.10 UV stabilizers 13.11 Other additives References 14 TESTING METHODS IN FILLED SYSTEMS 14.1 Physical methods14.1.1 Atomic force microscopy 14.1.2 Autoignition test 14.1.3 Bound rubber 14.1.4 Char formation 14.1.5 Cone calorimetry 14.1.6 Contact angle 14.1.7 Dispersing agent requirement14.1.8 Dispersion tests 14.1.9 Dripping test 14.1.10 Dynamic mechanical analysis14.1.11 Electric constants determination14.1.12 Electron microscopy 14.1.13 Fiber orientation 14.1.14 Flame propagation test14.1.15 Glow wire test 14.1.16 Image analysis 14.1.17 Limiting oxygen index14.1.18 Magnetic properties 14.1.19 Optical microscopy 14.1.20 Particle size analysis 14.1.21 Radiant panel test 14.1.22 Rate of combustion 14.1.23 Scanning acoustic microscopy14.1.24 Smoke chamber 14.1.25 Sonic methods 14.1.26 Specific surface area14.1.27 Thermal analysis 14.2 Chemical and instrumental analysis14.2.1 Electron spin resonance 14.2.2 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis14.2.3 Inverse gas chromatography 14.2.4 Gas chromatography 14.2.5 Gel content 14.2.6 Infrared and Raman spectroscopy14.2.7 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy14.2.8 UV and visible spectophotometry 14.2.9 X-ray analysis References 15 FILLERS IN COMMERCIAL POLYMERS 15.1 Acrylics15.2 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer15.3 Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate 15.4 Aliphatic polyketone 15.5 Alkyd resins 15.6 Bismaleimide15.7 Cellulose acetate15.8 Chitosan15.9 Elastomers 15.10 Epoxy resins 15.11 Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer15.12 Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer15.13 Ethylene-ethyl acetate copolymer 15.14 Ethylene-propylene copolymers 15.15 Ionomers 15.16 Liquid crystalline polymers15.17 Perfluoroalkoxy resin 15.18 Phenolic resins 15.19 Poly(acrylic acid) 15.20 Polyacrylonitrile15.21 Polyamides 15.22 Polyamideimide 15.23 Polyamines 15.24 Polyaniline 15.25 Polyaryletherketone15.26 Poly(butylene succinate)15.27 Poly(butylene terephthalate)15.28 Polycaprolactone 15.29 Polycarbonate15.30 Polydicyclopentadiene 15.31 Polyetheretherketone15.32 Polyetherimide 15.33 Polyether sulfone 15.34 Polyethylene 15.35 Polyethylene, chlorinated 15.36 Polyethylene, chlorosulfonated 15.37 Poly(ethylene oxide) 15.38 Poly(ethylene terephthalate)15.39 Polyimide 15.41 Polymethylmethacrylate15.42 Polyoxymethylene 15.43 Poly(phenylene ether)15.44 Poly(phenylene sulfide) 15.45 Polypropylene 15.46 Polypyrrole 15.47 Polystyrene & high impact 15.48 Polysulfide 15.49 Polysulfone 15.50 Polytetrafluoroethylene15.51 Polyurethanes 15.52 Poly(vinyl acetate)15.53 Poly(vinyl alcohol)15.54 Poly(vinyl butyral) 15.55 Poly(vinyl chloride) 15.56 Rubbers 15.56.1 Natural rubber15.56.2 Nitrile rubber 15.56.3 Polybutadiene rubber 15.56.4 Polybutyl rubber 15.56.5 Polychloroprene 15.56.6 Polyisobutylene 15.56.7 Polyisoprene 15.56.8 Styrene-butadiene rubber15.57 Silicones 15.58 Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer15.59 Tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoropropylene15.60 Unsaturated polyesters 15.61 Vinylidene-fluoride terpolymers References 16 FILLER IN MATERIALS COMBINATIONS 16.1 Blends, alloys and interpenetrating networks16.2 Composites 16.3 Nanocomposites 16.4 Laminates References 17 FORMULATION WITH FILLERS References 18 FILLERS IN DIFFERENT PROCESSING METHODS 18.1 Blow molding18.2 Calendering and hot-melt coating18.3 Compression molding 18.4 Dip coating 18.5 Dispersion 18.6 Extrusion 18.7 Foaming 18.8 Injection molding18.9 Knife coating 18.10 Mixing 18.11 Pultrusion 18.12 Reaction injection molding18.13 Resin transfer molding18.14 Rotational molding 18.15 Sheet molding18.16 Spinning 18.17 Thermoforming 18.18 Welding and machining References 19 FILLERS IN DIFFERENT PRODUCTS 19.1 Adhesives 19.2 Agriculture 19.3 Aerospace19.4 Appliances 19.5 Automotive materials 19.6 Bottles and containers 19.7 Building components 19.8 Business machines 19.9 Cable and wire 19.10 Coated fabrics 19.11 Coatings and paints19.12 Cosmetics and pharmaceutical products19.13 Dental restorative composites 19.14 Electrical and electronic materials 19.15 Electromagnetic interference shielding 19.16 Fibers 19.17 Film 19.18 Foam 19.19 Food and feed19.20 Friction materials19.21 Geosynthetics 19.22 Hoses and pipes 19.23 Magnetic devices 19.24 Medical applications 19.25 Membranes 19.26 Noise damping 19.27 Optical devices 19.28 Paper 19.29 Radiation shields19.30 Railway transportation 19.31 Roofing 19.32 Telecommunication19.33 Tires 19.34 Sealants 19.35 Siding 19.36 Sports equipment 19.37 Waterproofing 19.38 Windows References 20 HAZARDS IN FILLER USE