Graham's Principles and Applications of Radiological Physics

7th Edition - November 30, 2019
Authors: Martin Vosper, Andrew England, Vicki Major
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 7 0 2 0 - 6 8 1 6 - 4
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 7 0 2 0 - 6 7 5 6 - 3

This must-have text provides an insight into the science behind radiographic technology. Suitable for radiography and radiology students at all levels, the text uses il… Read more

Graham's Principles and Applications of Radiological Physics

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This must-have text provides an insight into the science behind radiographic technology. Suitable for radiography and radiology students at all levels, the text uses illustrations and simple analogies to explain the fundamentals, while retaining more complex concepts for those with a more advanced knowledge of radiological physics. Updated by authors Martin Vosper, Andrew England and Victoria Major to reflect advances and key topics in medical imaging practice, this text will support radiographers in their core role of obtaining high quality images and optimal treatment outcomes.

Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Dedication
SECTION 1 Fundamentals
1 Principles of medical imaging
Chapter Contents
1.1 Aim
1.2 Medical imaging and radiotherapy
1.3 Methods of radiation treatment
1.4 Radiation protection
Summary
Further reading
2 Atoms and matter
Chapter Contents
2.1 Aim
2.2 Introduction
2.3 The atomic nucleus
2.4 Electron shells
2.5 The periodic table of elements
2.6 Electron orbital changes
2.7 Binding energy of the electron shells
2.8 The structure of matter
Summary
Further reading
3 Classical physics principles—energy, force, matter and heat
Chapter Contents
3.1 Aim
3.2 Law of conservation of matter (mass)
3.3 Law of conservation of energy
3.4 Law of conservation of momentum
3.5 Newton’s laws of motion
3.6 Avogadro’s hypothesis, the mole and Avogadro’s number
3.7 Heat
3.8 Heat energy and temperature
3.9 Transfer of heat
3.10 Thermal expansion
3.11 Evaporation and vaporisation
Summary
Further reading
4 Units of measurement
Chapter Contents
4.1 Aim
4.2 Units of measurement
4.3 The International System of Units base units
4.4 Units used in medical imaging
4.5 Prefixes and powers
Summary
Further reading
5 Electricity
Chapter Contents
5.1 Aim
5.2 Electrostatics
5.3 Properties of electrical charges
5.4 Force between two electrical charges in a vacuum
5.5 Permittivity and relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
5.6 Electrical field strength
5.7 Electrostatic induction of charge
5.8 Electrical potential
5.9 Distribution of electrical charge on an irregularly shaped conductor
5.10 Electrical capacity (capacitance)
5.11 Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
5.12 Discharging a capacitor through a resistor
5.13 The time-constant for a capacitor resistor circuit
5.14 Capacitors in medical imaging
5.15 Batteries
5.16 Electricity
5.17 Simple electron theory of conduction
5.18 Electric current
5.19 mA, mAs and millicoulombs
5.20 Potential difference and electromotive force
5.21 Resistance
5.22 Ohm’s law
5.23 Electrical energy and power
5.24 Power loss in cables
5.25 Alternating current
5.26 Types of DC and AC
5.27 Sinusoidal AC
5.28 AC and the x-ray tube
Further reading
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism
Chapter Contents
6.1 Aim
6.2 Magnetic fields
6.3 Bulk magnetic properties and permanent magnets
6.4 Electromagnetism
6.5 Electron flow and ‘conventional’ current
6.6 Magnetic field resulting from a straight wire
6.7 Magnetic field resulting from a circular coil of wire
6.8 Magnetic field resulting from a solenoid
6.9 Electromagnetic induction
6.10 Conditions necessary for electromagnetic induction
6.11 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
6.12 Lenz’s law
6.13 Sign convention for the induced current
6.14 Mutual induction
6.15 Self-induction
6.16 The AC generator
Summary
Further reading
7 X-ray circuit components
Chapter Contents
7.1 Aim
7.2 Generators – obtaining energy for radiation production
7.3 Traditional transformers
7.4 The autotransformer
7.5 The constant-voltage transformer
7.6 Transformer rating
7.7 High-frequency generators
7.8 Control of exposure factors
7.9 Rectification
7.10 Semiconductors
7.11 Intrinsic semiconductors
7.12 Extrinsic semiconductors
7.13 The PN junction
7.14 Semiconductor devices in radiography
Summary
Further reading
8 The laws of modern physics
Chapter Contents
8.1 Aim
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Classical versus modern laws
8.4 Law of conservation of energy
8.5 Law of conservation of momentum
8.6 Wave–particle duality
8.7 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Summary
Further reading
9 Electromagnetic radiations
Chapter Contents
9.1 Aim
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Properties of electromagnetic radiations
9.4 The electromagnetic spectrum
9.5 Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (Laser)
9.6 Electromagnetic radiations and radiography
Summary
Further reading
10 Radioactivity
Chapter Contents
10.1 Aim
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Nuclide chart
10.4 Alpha decay or alpha-particle emission
10.5 Beta decay or beta-particle emission
10.6 Gamma decay or gamma-ray emission
10.7 Electron capture
10.8 Branching decay programmes
10.9 Fission
10.10 Summary of radioactive nuclear transformations
10.11 Exponential radioactive decay processes
Summary
Further reading
SECTION 2 Imaging methods and their applications
11 X-ray production
Chapter Contents
11.1 Aim
11.2 Interactions in the target of an X-ray tube
11.3 The Bremsstrahlung process—the continuous X-ray spectrum
11.4 The characteristic radiation process—the X-ray line spectrum
11.5 The complete X-ray spectrum
Summary
Further reading
12 The diagnostic X-ray tube
Chapter Contents
12.1 Aim
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Construction of X-ray tubes
12.4 Construction of the tube shield (housing)
12.5 Construction of the rotating anode tube insert
12.6 Construction of the stationary anode tube insert
12.7 Principles of operation of the X-ray tube
12.8 X-ray tube rating
12.9 Modern trends in X-ray tube design
Summary
Further reading
13 X-ray attenuation
Chapter Contents
13.1 Aim
13.2 What is attenuation?
13.3 Photoelectric absorption
13.4 Compton scatter
13.5 Relative importance of the different X-ray attenuation processes in diagnostic imaging
13.6 Conclusion
Summary
Further reading
14 Properties of X-ray beams
Chapter Contents
14.1 Aim
14.2 Introduction
14.3 The effect of mA (and exposure time) on the X-ray beam
14.4 The effect of kVp on the X-ray beam
14.5 The effect of the X-ray tube target material on the X-ray beam
14.6 The effect of generator waveform on the X-ray beam
14.7 The effect of filtration on the X-ray beam
14.8 The effect of distance – the inverse square law
14.9 Summary of the factors affecting the quantity, quality and intensity of the X-ray beam
Summary
Further reading
15 Digital radiography: computed radiography and digital radiography systems
Chapter Contents
15.1 Aim
15.2 The digital image
15.3 Digital image production
15.4 Digital imaging in general radiography
Summary
Further reading
16 Exposure factors and the digital radiographic image
Chapter Contents
16.1 Aim
16.2 Introduction
16.3 The X-ray image pattern
16.4 The radiographic image pattern
16.5 Practical considerations in exposure selection
16.6 Exposure factors and selection principles
16.7 Factors affecting image quality
Summary
Further reading
17 Mobile, portable and dental X-ray systems
Chapter Contents
17.1 Aim
17.2 Introduction
17.3 Mobile X-ray systems
17.4 Portable X-ray systems
17.5 Dental X-ray systems
Summary
Further reading
18 Mammography
Chapter Contents
18.1 Aim
18.2 Introduction
18.3 Tissue X-ray attenuation challenges for breast imaging
18.4 X-ray beam adaptations for breast imaging
18.5 Image quality considerations
18.6 Future developments in mammography
Summary
Further reading
19 Fluoroscopy
Chapter Contents
19.1 Aim
19.2 Fluoroscopic principles
19.3 The image intensifier
19.4 Flat-panel (solid-state) fluoroscopy systems
19.5 Fluoroscopic image quality
19.6 Dose reduction in fluoroscopy
Summary
Further reading
20 Computed tomography scanning
Chapter Contents
20.1 Aim
20.2 Introduction
20.3 The development of the CT scanner
20.4 Scanner subsystems
20.5 Advances in computed tomography technology
20.6 Formation of the computed tomography image
20.7 Computed tomography and radiation dose
Summary
Further reading
21 Radiation dosimetry and protection
Chapter Contents
21.1 Aim
21.2 Introduction
21.3 Units of exposure and dose
21.4 Quality factor and dose equivalent
21.5 Absolute measurement of absorbed dose
21.6 Types of detectors and dosimeters
21.7 Purpose and scope of radiation protection
21.8 Legal aspects
21.9 Dose-equivalent limits
21.10 Local rules
21.11 The role of the practitioner
21.12 The role of the operator
Summary
Further reading
22 The gamma camera
Chapter Contents
22.1 Aim
22.2 Basic concept of radionuclide imaging
22.3 The gamma camera
22.4 Production of artificially produced radionuclides
22.5 Clinically useful radionuclides
22.6 Safety
Summary
Further reading
23 Positron emission tomography and single photon emission computed tomography
Chapter Contents
23.1 Aim
23.2 Positron emission tomography
23.3 Single photon emission computed tomography
Summary
Further reading
24 Ultrasound imaging
Chapter Contents
24.1 Aim
24.2 Sound properties
24.3 The Doppler effect
24.4 Production and application of ultrasound
Summary
Further reading
25 Magnetic resonance imaging
Chapter Contents
25.1 Aim
25.2 Key principles of magnetic resonance imaging
25.3 Image weightings, sequences and appearances
25.4 Magnetic resonance imaging equipment—scanners and coils
25.5 Magnetic resonance image construction
25.6 Magnetic resonance imaging bioeffects and safety
25.7 Advanced magnetic resonance techniques
Summary
Further reading
26 Hybrid scanners
Chapter Contents
26.1 Aim
26.2 Background
26.3 Historical development
26.4 The single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography hybrid scanner
26.5 The positron emission tomography/computed tomography hybrid scanner
26.6 The positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging hybrid scanner
26.7 Other hybrid scanner combinations and current research
Summary
Further reading
27 Medical informatics and radiology
Chapter Contents
27.1 Aim
27.2 Introduction
27.3 Hospital information systems
27.4 Radiology information systems
27.5 Picture archiving and communications systems
27.6 Digital imaging and communications in medicine and radiology
27.7 Electronic patient record
27.8 Dose management software
27.9 Advanced informatics in radiology
27.10 Future of radiology informatics
Further reading
28 Safety and protection for non-ionising radiations
Chapter Contents
28.1 Aim
28.2 Magnetic resonance imaging safety
28.3 Ultrasound safety
Summary
Further reading
29 Putting it all together—showing tissues with science
Chapter Contents
29.1 Aim
29.2 Anatomical depiction using science
29.3 Functional depiction using science
Summary
Further reading
SECTION 3 Appendices and tables
Appendix A Mathematics for radiography
Appendix contents
A.1 Algebraic symbols
A.2 Fractions and percentages
A.3 Multiplying and dividing
A.4 Solving equations
A.5 Powers (indices)
A.6 Powers of 10
A.7 Proportionality
A.8 Graphs
A.9 The geometry of triangles
A.10 Pocket calculators and calculations in examinations
A.11 Logarithms
A.12 Vector quantities
Answers to exercises
Appendix B Modulation transfer function
Appendix contents
B.1 Modulation and spatial frequencies
B.2 Modulation transfer function and spatial frequency
B.3 Objects as spatial frequencies
B.4 Measurement of modulation transfer function
Appendix C Signal-to-noise ratio
Appendix D International System of base units
Appendix contents
D.1 Mass
D.2 Length
D.3 Time
D.4 Electric current
D.5 Temperature
D.6 Luminous intensity
D.7 Amount of substance
Table A Powers of 10
Table B Physical constants
Table C Important conversion factors
Table D Greek symbols and their common usage
Table E The periodic table of elements
Table F Electron configuration of the elements
Self-Test Questions
Self-Test Answers
Index

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Graham's Principles and Applications of Radiological Physics

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Martin Vosper

Andrew England

Vicki Major