Fundamental Neuroscience

Preface to the Third EditionAbout The EditorsContributorsI: NEUROSCIENCE1: Fundamentals of NeuroscienceA BRIEF HISTORY OF NEUROSCIENCETHE TERMINOLOGY OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS IS HIERARCHICAL, DISTRIBUTED, DESCRIPTIVE, AND HISTORICALLY BASEDNEURONS AND GLIA ARE CELLULAR BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEMTHE OPERATIVE PROCESSES OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS ARE ALSO HIERARCHICALCELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAINORGANIZATION OF THIS TEXTTHIS BOOK IS INTENDED FOR A BROAD RANGE OF SCHOLARS OF THE NEUROSCIENCESCLINICAL ISSUES IN THE NEUROSCIENCESTHE SPIRIT OF EXPLORATION CONTINUESTHE GENOMIC INVENTORY IS A GIANT STEP FORWARDNEUROSCIENCE TODAY: A COMMUNAL ENDEAVORTHE CREATION OF KNOWLEDGERESPONSIBLE CONDUCTSUMMARY2: Basic Plan of the Nervous SystemINTRODUCTIONEVOLUTION HIGHLIGHTS: GENERAL ORGANIZING PRINCIPLESDEVELOPMENT REVEALS BASIC VERTEBRATE PARTSTHE BASIC PLAN OF NERVOUS SYSTEM CONNECTIVITYOVERVIEW OF THE ADULT MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEMII: CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR NEUROSCIENCE3: Cellular Components of Nervous TissueNEURONSSPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT NEURONAL TYPESNEUROGLIACEREBRAL VASCULATURE4: Subcellular Organization of the Nervous System: Organelles and Their FunctionsAXONS AND DENDRITES: UNIQUE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF NEURONSPROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN NERVOUS TISSUECYTOSKELETONS OF NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLSMOLECULAR MOTORS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEMBUILDING AND MAINTAINING NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS5: Electrotonic Properties of Axons and DendritesTOWARD A THEORY OF NEURONAL INFORMATION PROCESSINGBASIC TOOLS: CABLE THEORY AND COMPARTMENTAL MODELSSPREAD OF STEADY-STATE SIGNALSSPREAD OF TRANSIENT SIGNALSELECTROTONIC PROPERTIES UNDERLYING PROPAGATION IN AXONSELECTROTONIC SPREAD IN DENDRITESDYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF PASSIVE ELECTROTONIC STRUCTURERELATING PASSIVE TO ACTIVE POTENTIALS6: Membrane Potential and Action PotentialMEMBRANE POTENTIALACTION POTENTIAL7: NeurotransmittersSEVERAL MODES OF NEURONAL COMMUNICATION EXISTCHEMICAL TRANSMISSIONCLASSICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERSNONCLASSICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERSPEPTIDE TRANSMITTERSUNCONVENTIONAL TRANSMITTERSSYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION IN PERSPECTIVE8: Release of NeurotransmittersTRANSMITTER RELEASE IS QUANTALEXCITATION–SECRETION COUPLINGMOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF THE NERVE TERMINALQUANTAL ANALYSIS: PROBING SYNAPTIC PHYSIOLOGYSHORT-TERM SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY9: Neurotransmitter ReceptorsIONOTROPIC RECEPTORSG-PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTORS10: Intracellular SignalingSIGNALING THROUGH G-PROTEIN-LINKED RECEPTORSMODULATION OF NEURONAL FUNCTION BY PROTEIN KINASES AND PHOSPHATASESINTRACELLULAR SIGNALING AFFECTS NUCLEAR GENE EXPRESSION11: Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic IntegrationIONOTROPIC RECEPTORS: MEDIATORS OF FAST EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY SYNAPTIC POTENTIALSMETABOTROPIC RECEPTORS: MEDIATORS OF SLOW SYNAPTIC POTENTIALSINTEGRATION OF SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS12: Complex Information Processing in DendritesSTRATEGIES FOR STUDYING COMPLEX DENDRITESBUILDING PRINCIPLES STEP BY STEPAN AXON PLACES CONSTRAINTS ON DENDRITIC PROCESSINGDENDRODENDRITIC INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AXONAL CELLSPASSIVE DENDRITIC TREES CAN PERFORM COMPLEX COMPUTATIONSSEPARATION OF DENDRITIC FIELDS ENHANCES COMPLEX INFORMATION PROCESSINGDISTAL DENDRITES CAN BE CLOSELY LINKED TO AXONAL OUTPUTDEPOLARIZING AND HYPERPOLARIZING DENDRITIC CONDUCTANCES INTERACT DYNAMICALLYTHE AXON HILLOCK-INITIAL SEGMENT ENCODES GLOBAL OUTPUTMULTIPLE IMPULSE INITIATION SITES ARE UNDER DYNAMIC CONTROLRETROGRADE IMPULSE SPREAD INTO DENDRITES CAN HAVE MANY FUNCTIONSEXAMPLES OF HOW VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS ENHANCE DENDRITIC INFORMATION PROCESSINGDENDRITIC SPINES ARE MULTIFUNCTIONAL MICROINTEGRATIVE UNITSSUMMARY: THE DENDRITIC TREE AS A COMPLEX INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM13: Brain Energy MetabolismENERGY METABOLISM OF THE BRAIN AS A WHOLE ORGANTIGHT COUPLING OF NEURONAL ACTIVITY, BLOOD FLOW, AND ENERGY METABOLISMENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-CONSUMING PROCESSES IN THE BRAINBRAIN ENERGY METABOLISM AT THE CELLULAR LEVELGLUTAMATE AND NITROGEN METABOLISM: A COORDINATED SHUTTLE BETWEEN ASTROCYTES AND NEURONSTHE ASTROCYTE-NEURON METABOLIC UNITIII: NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT14: Neural Induction and Pattern FormationNEURAL INDUCTIONEARLY NEURAL PATTERNINGREGIONALIZATION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMCONCLUSIONS15: Cellular DeterminationORIGINS AND GENERATION OF NEURONAL PROGENITORSSPATIAL AND TEMPORAL COORDINATES OF NEURONAL SPECIFICATIONTHE PRONEURAL AND NEUROGENIC GENESASYMMETRIC CELL DIVISION AND CELL FATECENTRAL NEURONS AND GLIASENSORY NEURONS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMTHE RETINA: A COLLABORATION OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC CUESCOMBINATORIAL CODING IN MOTOR NEURONS DETERMINATIONCELLS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEXCONCLUSIONS16: Neurogenesis and MigrationINTRODUCTIONDEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMCELL MIGRATION IN THE CNS17: Growth Cones and Axon PathfindingGROWTH CONES ARE ACTIVELY GUIDEDGUIDANCE CUES FOR DEVELOPING AXONSGUIDANCE CUES AND THE CONTROL OF CYTOSKELETAL DYNAMICSGUIDANCE AT THE MIDLINE: CHANGING RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE CUES18: Target Selection, Topographic Maps, and Synapse FormationTARGET SELECTIONDEVELOPMENT OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPSESYNAPSE FORMATION IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM19: Programmed Cell Death and Neurotrophic FactorsCELL DEATH AND THE NEUROTROPHIC HYPOTHESISTHE ORIGINS OF PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH AND ITS WIDESPREAD OCCURRENCE IN THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEMFUNCTIONS OF NEURONAL PROGRAMMED CELL DEATHMODES OF CELL DEATH IN DEVELOPING NEURONSTHE MODE OF NEURONAL CELL DEATH REFLECTS THE ACTIVATION OF DISTINCT BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMSNERVE GROWTH FACTOR: THE PROTOTYPE TARGET-DERIVED NEURONAL SURVIVAL FACTORTHE NEUROTROPHIN FAMILYNEUROTROPHIN RECEPTORSSECRETION AND AXONAL TRANSPORT OF NEUROTROPHINS AND PRO-NEUROTROPHINSSIGNAL TRANSDUCTION THROUGH TRK RECEPTORSCYTOKINES AND GROWTH FACTORS HAVE MULTIPLE ACTIVITIESPROGRAMMED CELL DEATH IS REGULATED BY INTERACTIONS WITH TARGETS, AFFERENTS, AND NONNEURONAL CELLSTHE ROLE OF PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH IN NEUROPATHOLOGY20: Synapse EliminationOVERVIEWTHE PURPOSE OF SYNAPSE ELIMINATIONA STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF SYNAPSE ELIMINATION AT THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTIONA ROLE FOR INTERAXONAL COMPETITION AND ACTIVITYIS SYNAPSE ELIMINATION STRICTLY A DEVELOPMENTAL PHENOMENON?SUMMARY21: Dendritic DevelopmentDYNAMICS OF DENDRITIC ARBOR DEVELOPMENTGENETIC CONTROL OF DENDRITE DEVELOPMENT IN DROSOPHILAEXTRACELLULAR REGULATION OF DENDRITIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE MAMMALIAN BRAINEFFECT OF EXPERIENCE ON DENDRITIC DEVELOPMENTMECHANISMS THAT MEDIATE ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT DENDRITIC GROWTHCONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCECONCLUSION22: Early Experience and Sensitive PeriodsBIRDSONG: LEARNED BY EXPERIENCESOUND LOCALIZATION: CALIBRATED BY EARLY EXPERIENCE IN THE OWLPRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENTAL LEARNINGIV: SENSORY SYSTEMS23: Fundamentals of Sensory SystemsSENSATION AND PERCEPTIONRECEPTORSPERIPHERAL ORGANIZATION AND PROCESSINGCENTRAL PATHWAYS AND PROCESSINGSENSORY CORTEXSUMMARY24: Chemical Senses: Taste and OlfactionTASTEOLFACTIONPHEROMONE DETECTION25: Somatosensory SystemPERIPHERAL MECHANISMS OF SOMATIC SENSATIONNOCICEPTION, THERMORECEPTION, AND ITCHCNS COMPONENTS OF SOMATIC SENSATIONTHALAMIC MECHANISMS OF SOMATIC SENSATIONTHE PATH FROM NOCICEPTION TO PAINTHE TRIGEMINAL SYSTEM (Fig. 25.16)CORTICAL REPRESENTATION OF TOUCH26: AuditionEXTERNAL AND MIDDLE EARTHE COCHLEATHE AUDITORY NERVECENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM27: VisionOVERVIEWTHE EYE AND THE RETINAP and M Pathways Have Different Response PropertiesM Cells Are Highly Sensitive to ContrastTHE RETINOGENICULOCORTICAL PATHWAYV: MOTOR SYSTEMS28: Fundamentals of Motor SystemsBASIC COMPONENTS OF THE MOTOR SYSTEMMOTOR PROGRAMS COORDINATE BASIC MOTOR PATTERNSROLES OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE CONTROL OF MOVEMENTCONCLUSION29: The Spinal and Peripheral Motor SystemLOCOMOTION IS A CYCLECONNECTING THE SPINAL CORD TO THE PERIPHERYSPINAL INTERNEURON NETWORKSDESCENDING CONTROL OF SPINAL CIRCUITSSENSORY MODULATION30: Descending Control of MovementTHE MEDIAL POSTURAL SYSTEMTHE LATERAL VOLUNTARY SYSTEMSUMMARY31: The Basal GangliaBASAL GANGLIA ANATOMYGPi Is the Primary Basal Ganglia Output for Limb MovementsSIGNALING IN BASAL GANGLIATHE EFFECT OF BASAL GANGLIA DAMAGE ON MOVEMENTFUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF BASAL GANGLIA OPERATION FOR MOTOR CONTROLBASAL GANGLIA PARTICIPATION IN NONMOTOR FUNCTIONS32: CerebellumANATOMY AND PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE CEREBELLUMASSESSING CEREBELLAR FUNCTIONA Cerebellar Role in Rehabilitation? Functional Recovery through Relearning after Damage of Other Parts of the Nervous System33: Eye MovementsEYE MOVEMENTS ARE USED TO STABILIZE GAZE OR TO SHIFT GAZETHE MECHANICS OF MOVING THE EYESTHE FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITS FOR STABILIZING GAZETHE COMMANDS FOR SHIFTING GAZE ARE FORMED IN THE BRAIN STEMGAZE SHIFTS ARE CONTROLLED BY THE MIDBRAIN AND FOREBRAINTHE CONTROL OF GAZE SHIFTS INVOLVES HIGHER-ORDER PROCESSESTHE CONTROL OF EYE MOVEMENTS CHANGES OVER TIMECONCLUSIONSVI: REGULATORY SYSTEMS34: The Hypothalamus: An Overview of Regulatory SystemsHISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEHYPOTHALAMIC CYTOARCHITECTUREFUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMUSEFFECTOR SYSTEMS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS ARE HORMONAL AND SYNAPTIC35: Central Control of Autonomic Functions: Organization of the Autonomic Nervous SystemSYMPATHETIC DIVISION: ORGANIZED TO MOBILIZE THE BODY FOR ACTIVITYPARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION: ORGANIZED FOR ENERGY CONSERVATIONTHE ENTERIC DIVISION OF THE ANS: THE NERVE NET FOUND IN THE WALLS OF VISCERAL ORGANSANS PHARMACOLOGY: TRANSMITTER AND RECEPTOR CODINGAUTONOMIC COORDINATION OF HOMEOSTASISHIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED ANS CIRCUITS IN THE CNSPERSPECTIVE: FUTURE OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMSUMMARY AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS36: Neural Regulation of the Cardiovascular SystemAN ANATOMICAL FRAMEWORKA5 Cell GroupA1 Cell GroupANATOMY AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AUTONOMIC PATHWAYSNETWORK GENERATORSSHORT-TERM CONTROL MECHANISMSREFLEX CONTROL OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMARTERIAL BARORECEPTORSPERIPHERAL ARTERIAL CHEMORECEPTORSCARDIAC RECEPTORSABDOMINAL VISCERAL REFLEXES37: Neural Control of BreathingEARLY NEUROSCIENCE AND THE BRAIN STEMCENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BREATHINGWHERE ARE THE NEURONS GENERATING RESPIRATORY PATTERN?DISCHARGE PATTERNS OF RESPIRATORY NEURONSWHERE ARE THE NEURONS THAT GENERATE THE BREATHING RHYTHM?SENSORY INPUTS AND ALTERED BREATHINGMECHANORECEPTORS IN THE LUNGS ADJUST BREATHING PATTERN AND INITIATE PROTECTIVE REFLEXESMODULATION AND PLASTICITY OF RESPIRATORY MOTOR OUTPUTSUPRAPONTINE STRUCTURES AND BREATHING38: Food Intake and MetabolismCALORIC HOMEOSTASISROLE OF CALORIC HOMEOSTASIS IN CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKECENTRAL CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKENEUROPEPTIDES AND THE CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE39: Water Intake and Body FluidsBODY FLUID PHYSIOLOGYOSMOTIC HOMEOSTASISVOLUME HOMEOSTASIS40: Neuroendocrine SystemsTHE HYPOTHALAMUS IS A NEUROENDOCRINE ORGANHYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING/INHIBITING HORMONES AND THEIR TARGETSTHE HYPOTHALAMIC–ADENOHYPOPHYSIAL NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEMSTHE HYPOTHALAMIC-NEUROHYPOPHYSIAL SYSTEMSHORMONES AND THE BRAIN41: Circadian TimekeepingOVERVIEW OF THE MAMMALIAN CIRCADIAN TIMING SYSTEMTHE SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEI ARE THE SITE OF THE PRIMARY CIRCADIAN PACEMAKER IN MAMMALSA HIERARCHY OF CELL-AUTONOMOUS CIRCADIAN OSCILLATORSTHE MOLECULAR BASIS FOR CIRCADIAN OSCILLATION IS A TRANSCRIPTIONAL FEEDBACK LOOPCIRCADIAN PHOTORECEPTIONCIRCADIAN OUTPUT MECHANISMSDIVERSITY OF OUTPUT PATHWAYS LEADING TO PHYSIOLOGICAL RHYTHMSGENERAL SUMMARY42: Sleep, Dreaming, and WakefulnessTHE TWO STATES OF SLEEP: RAPID EYE MOVEMENT AND NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENTSLEEP IN THE MODERN ERA OF NEUROSCIENCEANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF BRAIN STEM REGULATORY SYSTEMSMODELING THE CONTROL OF BEHAVIORAL STATESLEEP HAS MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS43: Reward, Motivation, and AddictionREWARD AND MOTIVATIONADDICTIONVII: BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE44: Human Brain EvolutionEVOLUTIONARY AND COMPARATIVE PRINCIPLESEVOLUTION OF PRIMATE BRAINSWHY BRAIN SIZE IS IMPORTANTCONCLUSIONS45: Cognitive Development and AgingBRAIN DEVELOPMENTCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND AGING: A LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVEPATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND AGING46: Visual Perception of ObjectsTHE PROBLEM OF OBJECT RECOGNITIONSUBSTRATES FOR OBJECT PERCEPTION AND RECOGNITION: EARLY EVIDENCE FROM BRAIN DAMAGEVISUAL PATHWAYS FOR OBJECT PROCESSING IN NONHUMAN PRIMATESNEURONAL PROPERTIES WITHIN THE OBJECT RECOGNITION PATHWAYFUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY OF OBJECT RECOGNITION IN HUMANSPERCEPTION AND RECOGNITION OF SPECIFIC CLASSES OF OBJECTSOVERALL SUMMARY47: Spatial CognitionNEURAL SYSTEMS FOR SPATIAL COGNITIONPARIETAL CORTEXFRONTAL CORTEXHIPPOCAMPUS AND ADJACENT CORTEXSPATIAL COGNITION AND SPATIAL ACTION48: AttentionINTRODUCTIONVARIETIES OF ATTENTIONNEGLECT SYNDROME: A DEFICIT OF SPATIAL ATTENTIONSINGLE UNIT RECORDING STUDIES IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES PROVIDE CONVERGENT EVIDENCE FOR A FRONTO-PARIETAL ATTENTIONAL CONTROL SYSTEMATTENTION AFFECTS NEURAL ACTIVITY IN THE HUMAN VISUAL CORTEX IN THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF VISUAL STIMULATIONATTENTION INCREASES SENSITIVITY AND BOOSTS THE CLARITY OF SIGNALS GENERATED BY NEURONS IN PARTS OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM DEVOTED TO PROCESSING INFORMATION ABOUT OBJECTSATTENTION MODULATES NEURAL RESPONSES IN THE HUMAN LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUSTHE VISUAL SEARCH PARADIGM HAS BEEN USED TO STUDY THE ROLE OF ATTENTION IN SELECTING RELEVANT STIMULI FROM WITHIN A CLUTTERED VISUAL ENVIRONMENTWHERE IS THE COMPUTATIONAL BOTTLENECK AS REVEALED BY SEARCH TASKS?NEURONAL RECEPTIVE FIELDS ARE A POSSIBLE NEURAL CORRELATE OF LIMITED CAPACITYCOMPETITION CAN BE BIASED BY NONSPATIAL FEEDBACKFILTERING OF UNWANTED INFORMATION IN HUMANSCONCLUSIONS49: Learning and Memory: Basic MechanismsPARADIGMS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO STUDY ASSOCIATIVE AND NONASSOCIATIVE LEARNINGINVERTEBRATE STUDIES: KEY INSIGHTS FROM APLYSIA INTO BASIC MECHANISMS OF LEARNINGVERTEBRATE STUDIES: LONG-TERM POTENTIATIONLONG-TERM DEPRESSIONHOW DOES A CHANGE IN SYNAPTIC STRENGTH STORE A COMPLEX MEMORY?50: Learning and Memory: Brain SystemsINTRODUCTIONHISTORY OF MEMORY SYSTEMSMAJOR MEMORY SYSTEMS OF THE MAMMALIAN BRAINBEHAVIOR SUPPORTED BY MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMSCONCLUSION51: Language and CommunicationANIMAL COMMUNICATIONHUMAN LANGUAGECONCLUSIONS52: The Prefrontal Cortex and Executive Brain FunctionsINTRODUCTIONCONTROLLED PROCESSINGANATOMY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEXEFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX IN HUMANSNEUROIMAGING STUDIES AND PFCEFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX IN MONKEYSNEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEXPFC Neurons Can Sustain Their ActivityPFC Neural Activity Reflects Task RulesPFC Neurons Are FlexiblePFC Neurons Encode RewardsTHEORIES OF PREFRONTAL CORTEX FUNCTION53: ConsciousnessIndex