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The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition, Three Voluime Set is an award-winning three-volume reference on human action and reaction, and the thoughts, feelings, and physi… Read more
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The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition, Three Voluime Set is an award-winning three-volume reference on human action and reaction, and the thoughts, feelings, and physiological functions behind those actions. Presented alphabetically by title, 300 articles probe both enduring and exciting new topics in physiological psychology, perception, personality, abnormal and clinical psychology, cognition and learning, social psychology, developmental psychology, language, and applied contexts.
Written by leading scientists in these disciplines, every article has been peer-reviewed to establish clarity, accuracy, and comprehensiveness. The most comprehensive reference source to provide both depth and breadth to the study of human behavior, the encyclopedia will again be a much-used reference source. This set appeals to public, corporate, university and college libraries, libraries in two-year colleges, and some secondary schools.
Carefully crafted, well written, and thoroughly indexed, the encyclopedia helps users—whether they are students just beginning formal study of the broad field or specialists in a branch of psychology—understand the field and how and why humans behave as we do.
Undergraduate and graduate students in psychology and the behavioral sciences, as well as researchers in various psychological subdisciplines and psychiatry; the encyclopedia is also useful for the lay public who may have an interest in topics related to human behavior
Editorial Advisory Board
About the Editor-in-Chief
About the Editorial Advisory Board
Reviewers
Preface
Permission Acknowledgments
Article Titles
Academic Achievement
Importance of Academic Achievement
Indicators of Academic Achievement
Predictors of Academic Achievement
Equal Opportunities and Academic Achievement
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Addictions and Adolescence
Introduction
Developmental Issues
Applicability of Addiction Diagnostic Criteria for Adolescents
Three Adolescent Addictive Disorders
Nicotine Dependence
Epidemiology
Etiology
Other Substances Use Disorders (Excluding Nicotine)
Pathological Gambling
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Readings
Relevant Websites
Adolescence
Primary Changes in Adolescence
Contextual Areas of Interest Regarding Adolescent Development
Summary
See also
Further Reading
Adrenal Glands
Introduction
Anatomy and Physiology of the Adrenal Gland
Disorders of the Adrenal Cortex
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Aggression
What Is Aggression?
Why Do We Use Aggression?
What Causes Aggression?
What Reduces Aggression?
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Aging and Cognition
Introduction
Declarative Memory
Nondeclarative Memory
Executive Function
Decision-Making
Processing Speed
The Relationship Among Cognitive Functions
Cognitive Rehabilitation: Behavioral Interventions and Their Impact on Cognition
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Aging and the Brain
Major Neuronal Theories of Brain Aging
Systems-Level Anatomical Changes in the Brain with Age
Age-Associated Neurological Disorders
Maintaining a Healthy Brain
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Agnosia (including Prosopagnosia and Anosognosia)
Visual Agnosia: Overview
Object Agnosia
Face Agnosia (Prosopagnosia)
Color Agnosia
Tactile Agnosia
Agnosia for Words
Agnosia for Landmarks and Environment (Topographic Agnosia)
Anosognosia
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Agoraphobia and Panic Disorder
Agoraphobia and Panic: Past and Present
Descriptive Psychopathology, Diagnosis, and Epidemiology
Theories of Etiology and Maintenance
Clinical Assessment
Treatment
Conclusions and Prospects
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Agraphia and Alexia
Peripheral Dyslexias
Pure Alexia (Alexia Without Agraphia)
Attentional Dyslexia
Neglect Dyslexia
Central Dyslexias and Dysgraphias
Phonological Dyslexia and Dysgraphia
Surface Dyslexia and Dysgraphia
Deep Dyslexia and Dysgraphia
Semantic Dyslexia and Dysgraphia
Graphemic Buffer Impairment
More Peripheral Agraphias
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Alcohol: Psychosocial Effects
Introduction
Acute and Chronic Effects of Alcohol
Moderators of Alcohol Effects
Individual Differences in Moderating Effects
Beliefs and Expectancies
Personality Differences
Family History of Alcoholism
Selected Important Acute and Chronic Effects of Alcohol
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Alexithymia
History
Measurement of Alexithymia
Related Constructs
Cognitive Aspects
Physiological Aspects
Neurological Aspects
Alexithymia and Emotional Expression/Regulation
Alexithymia and Physical Health
Alexithymia and Mental Health
Treatment
Controversial Issues
Future Directions
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Altruism and Helping Behavior
Forms of Helping
A Process Model of Helping
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Alzheimer’s Disease
History
Symptoms
Prevalence and Mortality
Causes
Diagnosis
Genetics
Risk Factors and Prevention
Treatment
Societal Impact
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Amnesia
Amnesia
The Amnesic Syndrome
Traumatic RA
Functional Amnesia
Amnesia Through the Life Span
Amnesias of Everyday Experience
Theoretical and Practical Implications
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Amnesia and the Brain
The Amnesic Syndrome
Etiologies of Amnesia
Information-Processing Descriptions of Amnesia
Theoretical and Clinical Implications
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Analogical Reasoning
Introduction
Mapping
Evaluation
Analogical Retrieval
Factors that Influence Mapping
Neuropsychology of Analogical Reasoning
Analogy in Naturalistic Settings
Analogical Reasoning Without Awareness
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Anger
Generic and Specific Uses of the Concept of Anger
Anger in Historical Perspective
Anger in Courts of Law
Anger in Everyday Affairs
Rules of Anger
Anger and the Social Order
Anger in Health and Disease
Gender Differences
Wrongful Anger
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Animal Cognition
The Science of Animal Cognition
Numerical Processing
Memory
Conceptualization
Metacognition
Final Comments
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Antisocial and Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Introduction
Conceptualizations of ASPD and NPD
Comorbidity
Relationship to Normal Personality Traits
Etiological Influences: Genes and Environment
Treatment
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Anxiety and Fear
What Is Anxiety and What Is Fear?
What Makes Human Beings Anxious and/or Fearful?
Theories of the Development and Maintenance of Anxiety and Fear
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Anxiety Disorders
What Is Anxiety?
The Anxiety Disorders
Etiology
Treatment
Issues in Diagnosis
Special Populations
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Aphasia
Introduction
Evaluation of Aphasia
Classification of Aphasias
Recovery of Aphasia
Miscellaneous Topics in Aphasia
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Appetite
Introduction
Eating and Homeostasis
Within-Meal Controls of Eating
Across-Meal Controls of Eating
Brain Mechanisms
Sex Differences
Anorexia
Psychiatric Eating Disorders
Genetics of Eating
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Asperger’s Syndrome and Nonverbal Learning Disorder
Introduction
Diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome
Diagnosis of NLD
Common Characteristics of AS and NLD
Distinguishing Characteristics of AS and NLD
Etiology
Prevalence
Treatment Considerations
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Associative Learning
Basic Concepts
Habituation
Complex Phenomena
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Learning
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Attention
Introduction
The Theory of Perceptual Load
Working Memory and Selective Attention
Inattentional Blindness, Change Blindness, and Change Detection
Spatial Attention
Exogenous Spatial Attention
Endogenous Spatial Attention
Endogenous Versus Exogenous Spatial Orienting: One Mechanism or Two?
Crossmodal Spatial Attention
The Attentive Brain
Feature Integration Theory
Temporal Attention
Attention: The Future
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Historical Overview
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology
Assessment Issues
Developmental Course
Treatment Issues
Challenges and Perspectives
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Attitude Change
Overview of Attitudes and Attitude Change
Two Routes to Attitude Change
Central Route Approaches to Attitude Change
Peripheral Route Approaches
A Dual Process Approach to Understanding Attitude Change
Consequences of Attitude Changes Produced by Different Processes
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Attitude Formation
Introduction and Relevant Distinctions
Origins
Additional Considerations
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Attribution
Introduction
Classical Theories
Biases
Automatic and Controlled Components
Perceiver Differences
Implications
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders
Perspective
Diagnosis
Prevalence
Etiology
Treatment Challenges
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Autobiographical Remembering and the Self
Is Autobiographical Memory Necessary for Individuals to Experience a Sense of Personal Identity?
Does the Self Direct, Affect, or Alter the Content of the Autobiographical Memories That Can Be Recalled?
Mechanisms that May be Related to the Recall of Events from the Personal Past
Coda
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Introduction
Diagnosis
DSM Definition and Criteria
ICD Definition and Criteria
ICD-11, DSM-5, and the Future of APD
Comorbidity
Are APD and Social Phobia Separate Disorders?
APD and Other Personality Disorders
Stability and Course
Interpersonal Experiences, Development, and Risk for APD
Treatment
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Behavior Analysis
Introduction
Basic Principles of Behavior
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Applied Behavior Analysis
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Behavior Genetics of Personality
Introduction
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality Traits
Multivariate Modeling of Personality
Environmental Influences
Summary
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Behavior Measurement in Psychobiological Research
Introduction
Some Principles of Multilevel Measurement of Behavior
Application of Psychophysiological Measurement
Measurement of Autonomic Nervous System Function in Neurobehavioral Processes
Psychophysiological Relations
Inference in Psychophysiological Measurement
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Behavioral Economics
Introduction
Decision Theories
Heuristics and Biases
Mental Accounting and Framing
Emotions
Fairness and Reciprocity
Time Discounting
Neuroeconomics
Behavioral Game Theory
Liberalism and Paternalism
Brief Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Behavioral Genetics
Introduction
Evolution and Mendelian Genetics
Population Genetics
Quantitative Genetics
Molecular Genetics
Behavioral Genetics and Psychology
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Behavioral Medicine
Introduction
Brief Historical Context
Understanding Interactive Pathways of Disease
Behavioral Interventions
Challenges in Behavioral Medicine
Innovations in Behavioral Medicine
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Behavioral Pharmacology
History of Behavioral Pharmacology
Environmental Influences on Drug Effects
Drugs as Discriminative Stimuli
Drugs as Reinforcing Stimuli
Conditioned Drug Effects
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
The Behavior-Genetics of Intelligence
Behavioral Genetics Methods
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Big Five Model and Personality Disorders
Advantages of Integrating DSM-IV-TR with the Big Five
Scientific Foundation
FFM Personality Disorder Diagnosis
Feasibility
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Introduction
Pathways to Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Factors Contributing to the Success or Failure of Becoming Bilingual and Multilingual
What Does it Mean to Be Bilingual or Multilingual?
Conclusion
Glossary
Further Reading
Biofeedback Therapy
Underlying Learning Theory and Biologic Mechanism
Early Development
Methods
Clinical Applications
Glossary
Further Reading
Bipolar Disorder
Mechanism
Prevention
Medications
Mood Stabilizers
Age of Onset
Medication and Mood Stabilization
Perceptual Rivalry and Interhemispheric Switching
Jet Lag
Bipolar I Versus Bipolar II
Famous Bipolars
fMRI
Conclusion
Glossary
Further Reading
Birth Order, Effect on Personality, and Behavior
Introduction
Parental Investment
Sibling Competition
Personality: The Big Five
Birth Order and Behavior
Some Methodological Issues
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Review
Introduction
Clinical Characteristics
Gender Differences
Diagnosing BDD
Comorbidity
Relationship to Other Mental Illnesses
Neurobiology
Treatment
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Body Image
Introduction
History
Theories of Body Image Disturbance
Risk Factors for Negative Body Image
Gender Differences
Assessment of Body Image and Body Image Disturbance
Treatment and Prevention
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Borderline Personality Disorder
Clinical Features and Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder
Epidemiology and Cross-Cultural Prevalence
Etiology: Biological, Psychological, and Social
Course and Prognosis
Treatment
Chronic Suicidality in BPD
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
The Brain
Anatomical Organization of the Brain
Functional Organization of the Brain
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Brain and Behavior Relationships
Historical Background
Principles of Behavioral Neuroanatomy
Chemical and Neural Basis of Behavior
Cognitive–Behavioral Neuroanatomy
Neuropsychiatry
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Brain Chemicals: Global Projections of Ancient Aromatic Neurotransmitters
Introduction
Aromatic Chemicals
Biosynthesis of Aromatic Amino Acids
Derivatives of Aromatic Neurotransmitters
Homeostasis
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Brainwashing and Totalitarian Influence
Uses of the Term
The Mythic Definition: Induced by Exotic Techniques
The Social–Psychological Definition: Coercive Persuasion Through Mundane Social Influences
Theories of Brainwashing
Difficulties with the Scientific Study of Brainwashing
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Bulimia Nervosa
Introduction
Clinical Characteristics
Epidemiology
Longitudinal Course
Psychotherapy
Pharmacothearpy
Psychobiology
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Bullying
Definition
Prevalence
Development
Impact
Gender Differences
Cyberbullying
Workplace Bullying and Sexual Harassment
Intimate Partner Aggression
Cycle of Aggression
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Caffeine
Introduction
Sources and Consumption of Caffeine
Physiology of Caffeine
Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive Effects of Caffeine
Caffeine as a Tool for Psychological Research
Conclusion
Glossary
Further Reading
Career Development
How It Began
History of Career Development
Life Stages and Career Theories
Measuring Vocational Interests
Holland’s Approach to Career Development
Values and Career Development
Life Stages
The Theory of Work Adjustment
Social, Economic, and Technological Influences on Career Development
Issues Involved in Choice
Comparison of Theories
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Catecholamines and Behavior
Introduction
What are Catecholamines?
Measurement of Catecholamines
Catecholamines and Stress
Catecholamines and Mood
Learning and Reward
Movement
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Central Auditory Processing Disorders
Introduction
Neural Architecture of Central Auditory Processing
CAPD: Diagnostic Considerations
Central Deafness
General Auditory Agnosia
Verbal Auditory Agnosia
Nonverbal Auditory Agnosia
Idiopathic Acquired CAPD
Etiologic Heterogeneity/Diversity
Developmental CAPD
Treatment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Central Nervous System
Neuroanatomy
Behavior
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Child Abuse
Introduction
Attachment
Types of Child Abuse
Human Trafficking and Exploitation
Risk Factors and Protective Factors
Treatment and Support
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Childhood Mental Disorders
Introduction
Anxiety Disorders
Mood Disorders
Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders
Pervasive Developmental Disorders
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Chunking
Introduction
What Is Chunking?
The Purpose of Chunking
How Chunking Works
How Chunks Are Measured
Unresolved Issues
Concluding Remarks
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Classical Conditioning
Introduction
Terminology
Forms of Classical Conditioning
Human Examples
The Acquisition of Associative Strength in Classical Conditioning
Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
The Clinical and Cognitive Psychology of Conflict
The Motivational Aspects of Conflicts
The Unconscious and Emotional Aspects of Conflicts
The Bodily Effects of Stressful Conflicts
The Cognitive and Executive Aspects of Conflict
Positive Psychology
Resolving Social Conflict
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Clinical Assessment
The Guiding Role of Practice Theories
Sign and Sample Approaches: Diagnosis and Assessment
A Contextual Evidence-Informed Assessment
Sources of Influence
Sources of Information
Assessing the Value of Data
The Social Context of Assessment
Common Assessment Errors and Their Sources
Ethical Issues and Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Clinical Psychology: An Information Processing Approach
Introduction
Overview of the Information Processing Paradigm
Evolution of the IP Paradigm Within Clinical Psychology
Significance of the IP Paradigm to Clinical Psychology
Emotional Disorders and Information Processing Biases
Clinical Applicability of Information Processing Models and Treatments
The Self-Regulatory Model of Executive Dysfunction in Emotional Disorders
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Cognition and Personality
Introduction and Historical Context
Personality Traits, Information Processing, and Performance
Toward Cognitive Theories of Personality Effects
Further Research Directions
An Integrative Perspective on Personality and Cognition
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Introduction
What Is CBT?
The Third Wave of Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Cognitive Bias
Heuristics and Biases: A Short History of Cognitive Bias
Ecological Rationality: Putting Cognitive Biases in an Environmental Context
Evolutionary Rationality: Understanding Why Cognitive Biases Occur
Examples of Research on Cognitive Biases
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Cognitive Disorders
What Are Cognitive Disorders?
How Do We Recognize and Treat Delirium?
How Do We Recognize and Treat Amnestic Disorders?
How Do We Recognize and Treat Dementia?
Differential Diagnoses of Cognitive Disorders
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The Original Version of the Theory
Experimental Paradigms Used to Test the Theory
Challenges to the Research and Original Theory
Action-Based Model of Dissonance
Experimental Tests of the Action-Based Model
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Comparative Primate Psychology
Evolutionary Foundations of Comparative Primate Psychology
History of Comparative Primate Psychology
Comparative Primate Cognition
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Competition
Competition
The Social Function of Competition
Dominance and Competition
Sex Differences in Competition
Competition and Behavioral Economics
Conclusions and Current Research Trends
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Confabulation and Reality Filtering
Definition
Forms of Confabulation
Disorders Associated with Confabulation
Etiologies and Anatomy of Confabulations
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Conflict Communication
The System–Behavior–Interactionist Approach to the Study of Conflict Communication Behavior
The Rules–Interventionist Approach to Mediated Conflict Communication Rules
The Cognitive Approach to the Study of Conflict Communication Strategies
The Qualitative Research Approach to the Study of Conflict Communication Perceptual and Evaluative Processes
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Conformity and Obedience
Conformity
Mechanisms Underlying Conformity
Minority Influence
Mechanisms Underlying Nonconformity
Types of Conformity and Nonconformity
General Relational Norms Versus Context-Specific Norms
Obedience
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Consumer Psychology
Core Principles of Consumer Psychology
Managerial Applications of Consumer Psychology
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Coping
Introduction
Theories of Coping
Coping Strategies
Coping Resources
Some Additional Factors
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Creative and Imaginative Thinking
Introduction
Defining Creativity and Imagination
Stage Theories
Uncontrolled Cognition and Creative Syntheses
Extra- and Meta-Cognitive Processes
Conclusions
Glossary
Further Reading
Creativity
Definitions of Creativity
Methods of Studying Creativity
Stages of Creativity
Intelligence and Creativity
Divergent and Convergent Thinking in the Assessment of Creativity
Neurological Diseases, the Right Hemisphere, and Creativity
The Role of the Frontal Lobes and the Influence of Dopamine on Creativity
The Role of White Matter Connectivity in Creativity
Relaxation, Depression, and Creativity
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Crisis Management
Introduction
Definition of Crisis
Detection of Potential Crises
Preparation and Prevention of Crises
When a Crisis Happens
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Background
The Process of Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Factors Influencing the Process
Facets of Adaptive Change
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Crowd Psychology
Introduction
Classic Crowd Science: A Tale of Loss
Crowd Patterns and Crowd Norms
The Social Identity Model and Intragroup Dynamics in Crowds
The Elaborated Social Identity Model and Intergroup Dynamics in Crowds
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Crowding: Effects on Health and Behavior
Distinction Between Density and Crowding
Role of Social and Personal Characteristics
Effects of Crowding on Health and Behavior
Explaining the Negative Effects of Crowding
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Cultural Psychology
Core Premises of Cultural Psychology
Research Traditions and Findings
Cultural Neuroscience
Challenges
Promise of Cultural Psychology
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Decision Making (Individuals)
Introduction
History: Expected Value, Expected Utility, and Prospect Theory
Contemporary Approaches
Emotional Influences on Decision Making
The Neuroscience of Decision Making
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Defense Mechanisms
Freud’s Discovery of the Concept of Defense
Modern Conceptualizations of Defense
Identification of Defenses
See also
Further Reading
Delusions
Introduction
Delusions Defined?
Perception
Cognition
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Dependent Personality (Disorder)
Antecedent Validators for Dependent Personality Disorder
Predictive Validators and Treatment for Dependent Personality Disorder
Concurrent Validators for Dependent Personality Disorder
Dependent Personality Disorder and Trait Dependency
Trait Dependency, Temperament, and Normal Personality
Models of Dependency
Detachment/Autonomy
Dependency and the DSM
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Depression
Depression
Definition of Depression
Classification of Mood Disorders
Epidemiology
Theories of Depression
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Depth Perception
Introduction
Specialized Mechanisms for Near Distance
General Mechanisms for Near and Far Distance
Depth Perception in the Brain
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Developmental Psychopathology
Introduction
Key Concepts, Principles, and Challenges
Applied Example: Antisocial Behavior
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Disgust
Introduction
Attempts at Explanation
The Problem of Parasites
Disgust of Unfamiliar Food
Moral Disgust
Explaining Disgust
Disgust and Its Uses
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociation
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Divorce
The Extent of Divorce
The Causes of Divorce
Consequences of Divorce
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior
Introduction
Caffeine
Nicotine
Sedative-Hypnotics
Cocaine
Amphetamine
Opioids
Cannabinoids
Psychedelics or Hallucinogens
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Nitrous Oxide
Dissociative Anesthetics
Anticholinergics
Salvia divinorum
Antipsychotics
Antidepressants
Mood Stabilizers
Drugs and the Brain
Withdrawal, Dependence, and Addiction
Drugs and the Mind
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Dyslexia
Models of Reading
What Is Dyslexia?
The Discrepancy Definition
What Is Reading Comprehension Impairment?
Prevalence
Referral Routes and Assessment
Causes of RDs
Cognitive Explanations
Biological Bases
Environment
Development
Comorbidities
Interventions
Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
A Brief History of EDNOS
Current Definition of EDNOS
Epidemiology and Significance of EDNOS
Assessment of EDNOS
Treatment of EDNOS
Problems with the EDNOS Diagnosis
Current Trends
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Ecological Psychology
Ecology in the Biological Sciences
Ecological Approaches in Psychology
Gibson’s Ecological Psychology
Barker’s Ecological Psychology
Future of Ecological Psychology
Present Status and Future of Gibson’s Approach
Present Status and Future of Barker’s Approach
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Electroconvulsive Therapy and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Electroencephalography
Window on the Mind
Sources of Scalp Potentials
Volume Conduction of Head Currents
Recording Methods
Time Dependence
Topography
Dynamic Behavior of Sources
Glossary
Further Reading
Embarrassment and Blushing
Introduction
Theoretical Explanations for Embarrassment and Blushing
Causes of Embarrassment and Blushing
Blushing and the Expression of Embarrassment
Individual Differences in Embarrassment
Face Saving and Embarrassment
Observer Reactions
Coping with Blushing
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Empathy
Empathy as Knowing or Understanding Another’s Internal States
Empathy as Feeling What Another is Feeling
Empathy as Being Upset by Another’s Situation
Empathy as Feeling for Another
Empathy as Matching Another’s Overt Responses
Empathy as a Personality Characteristic
Sex Differences in Empathy
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Consequences of Empathy
Empathy, Accuracy, and Social Relationships
Empathy and Attributions
Empathy and Attitudes
Implications and Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Empirical Challenges to Conventional Mind–Brain Theory
Introduction
Extreme Psychophysiological Influence
Extremes of Informational Capacity and Precision
Memory
Psychological Automatisms and Secondary Centers of Consciousness
Psi Phenomena
Genius-Level Creativity
Mystical Experience
The Unity of Conscious Experience
The Heart of the Mind
Conclusion: Toward an Expanded Scientific Psychology
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Environmental Cognition
Introduction
The Nature of Stored Spatial Information: Analog, Propositional, or Both?
The Way the Brain Acquires, Stores, and Handles Environmental Information. Can We Identify Key Structures?
Cognitive Maps in Animals and Humans as Drivers of Action
Direct and Indirect Sources of Information About the Person’s Environment
Communicating and Sharing Environmental Information
The Development of Environmental Competence
Wayfinding, Becoming Lost, and Signage
The Legibility of Places
Environmental Cognition Without Sight; and Devices for the Blind
Individual, Specialist, and Cultural Differences in Environmental Cognition
Electronic and Other Devices for Storing and Using Environmental Information
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Environmental Psychology
Background, Theory, and Method
Environmental Perception
Environmental Cognition
Environmental Appraisal
Environmental Assessment
Environmental Personality
Personal Space
Human Territoriality
Crowding and Population Density
Privacy
Home and Community Settings
Work and Travel Settings
Learning Environments
Architectural Psychology
Resource Management
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Episodic and Semantic Systems of Autobiographical Memory
Episodic Versus Semantic Autobiographical Memories
Basic Phenomena in Autobiographical Remembering
Maintaining and Updating Semantic Self-Knowledge
Coincidental and Motivated Autobiographical Memory Errors
Sources of Inaccuracy in Episodic and Semantic Autobiographical Memory
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Episodic Memory
The Episodic Memory System
Episodic Memory Tasks
Episodic Memory Processes and Subjective Awareness
The Past Orientation of Episodic Memory
Emotions
Dissociations among Memory Systems
The Neuroscience of Episodic Memory
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Equity Theory
The Nature of Equity
Equity Theory
Current Research: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Equity in Love Relationships
Equity in Work Settings
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
Introduction
The Neurophysiological and Physical Origins of ERPs
Measurement and Analysis of ERPs
ERPs and Psychological Processes
Source Analysis
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Evidence-Based Practice
Introduction
Terminology, Rationale, and Tools for EBP
Conceptual Model of EBP: Three Circles
Roles in EBP
The EBP Process
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Evolutionary Clinical Psychology
Introduction
Defining Psychopathology
Etiology of Psychopathology
Specific Disorders
Evolutionary Informed Psychological Treatments
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology and Developmental Systems Theory
Applications of EDP
Adaptive Individual Differences
Concluding Remarks
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Evolutionary Personality Psychology
Introduction
Directional Social Selection
Disruptive Social Selection
Genetic Diversification
Developmental Plasticity
Behavioral Flexibility
Conclusion: An Integrated Overview
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Evolutionary Psychology
Principles of EP
Research in EP
Controversies in EP
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Evolutionary Social Psychology
Evolutionary Social Psychology
Multiple Levels of Causal Analysis
Historical Background of Evolutionary Social Psychology
Life History, Parental Investment, and Sexual Selection
Evolutionary History and Human Relationships
Evolution and Social Information Processing
Social Dynamics and the Emergence of Culture: The Mind as a Coloring Book
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Exercise and Sport Psychology
Introduction
A Definition of Exercise and Sport Psychology
The Origins of Sport Psychology
Sport Psychology Professional Organizations
What Do Sport Psychologists Do?
Why Sport Psychology?
Major Challenges Within Sport Psychology
The Future of Sport Psychology
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Expectation
Definition and Types of Expectations
Role of Expectations in Human Behavior
Sources
Measurement
Accuracy and Biases
Meta-Characteristics
Cognitive Effects of Expectations
Expectations and Verbal Communication
Expectations Affect Reality
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Extraversion–Introversion
Extraversion: An Overview
History
Contemporary Views of Extraversion
The Measurement of Extraversion
The Basis of Extraversion
Hereditary Influences
The Link Between Biology and Extraversion
Cross-Cultural Research into Extraversion
Drug Studies and Extraversion
Extraversion and Other Personality Factors
Extraversion and Social Behavior
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Eye Movements
Functions of Eye Movements
Types of Eye Movements
Eye Movements and Attention
Evolution and Anatomy of the Eye Movement System
Eye Movements in Sleep
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Eyewitness Identification
Introduction
Memory
General Overview
Weapon Focus
Stress
Confidence/Malleability
Facial Recognition
Lineups
Court Remedies
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Facial Expression of Emotion
Introduction
Emotion: A Complex and Multidimensional Phenomenon
From the Brain to the Face: An Emotional Journey
Facial Expression: From Universality to Cultural Influences
Facial Expression: Its Contribution to the Study of the Emotions
Emotion Manifested on the Face: Some Theories Compared
Macroexpression and Microexpression
Neuromuscular Structure and Facial Expression
The Face: Moderating Variables
Truth and Falsehood in Facial Expression
Psychosocial Implications and Applications
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Family Systems
Family Systems Theory
Systems Theory
The Development of Family Systems Theory
Glossary
Further Reading
Forensic Psychology in Contemporary Society
Forensic Psychology: Background and Contributions
Professional Training
The Role of the Forensic Psychologist
Predictions of Dangerousness
Commitment
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Free Will
Libertarianism
Determinism
Compatibilism
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Friendship
Friendship Formation
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Overview
Phenomenology of GAD
Conceptual Models of GAD
Treatment of GAD
Conclusion and Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Genius, Eminence, and Giftedness
Historical Legacies
Childhood Giftedness
Adulthood Genius
Adulthood Eminence
Putting the Pieces Together
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Gerotechnology
Introduction
Gerontechnology Defined
The Time for Gerontechnology Has Arrived
The Technology and Aging Imperative
Theoretical Contexts for Technology and Aging
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Gestalt Psychology and the Development of Perceptual Organization
Traditional Views on the Development of Perceptual Organization
Initial Empirical Efforts and Their Theoretical Implications
Progress on the Classic Grouping Principles
Progress on New Grouping Principles
Progress on the Special Case of Form Similarity
Progress on Understanding the Deployment of Lightness and Form Similarity: Automatic Versus Constructivist Grouping
Theoretical Progress
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Gestures
Introduction
Gesture and Speech
Emotions and Interpersonal Attitudes
The Role of Gesture in Interpersonal Communication
Conclusions
Glossary
Further Reading
Glial Cells
The Predominant Cells in the Brain are Glia
Functions of Glia
Glossary
Further Reading
Grandparenthood
Introduction
A Life Course Perspective on Grandparents
Grandparents and Divorce
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Grief and Bereavement
Introduction
Symptoms and Course of Grief
Health Consequences
Risk Factors
Measurement: Normal and Complicated Grief
Forms of Intervention: Counseling and Therapy
The Efficacy of Intervention
Theoretical Approaches
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Group Dynamics
Major Characteristics of Groups
Influence Processes in Groups
Working in Groups
Group Decision-Making
Influence of Individuals on Groups
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Hallucinations
Introduction
Classification of Hallucinations by Proposed Mechanism
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Handedness
Historical and Sociological Overview
Early Research on Handedness
Modern Research on Handedness
Measurement of Handedness
Handedness and Other Lateral Preferences
Handedness in Nonhumans
A New Approach to Handedness: Degree, Not Direction
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Hippocampal Formation
Introduction
A Seahorse in the Brain: Anatomy
Spikes and Waves: Physiology
Maps and Compasses: Neural Coding
Mapping, Declaring, Relating, Binding, Constructing: Theories of Function
Dying Cells: Pathology
New Birth: Adult Neurogenesis and Morphological Change
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
History of Film and Music
Introduction
Semantic Differential
Visual Information
Auditory Versus Visual Information
Music, Film, and Association
Music, Film, and Structure
Music, Film, and Emotion
Music, Film, and Memory
Music, Film, and Closure
Music, Film, and Plot Continuation
Music, Film, and Sound Quality
Physiological Affect
Music, Film, and Affect
Music, Film, and Meaning
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Description
History
Prevalence and Demographics
Co-occurrence and Comorbidity
Assessment
Etiology
Treatment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
HIV/AIDS: The Role of Behavior and the Social Environment in a Global Pandemic
Introduction
History and Epidemiology of HIV
Understanding the Role of Behavior
Evolving Prevention Responses
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Homeostasis
Introduction
History of Homeostasis
Current Concepts in Homeostasis
Homeostatic Control Systems
Examples of Homeostasis
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Homicide
The Epidemiology of Homicide
Theories of Homicide
Deterring Homicide
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Hope and Optimism
Definitions
Leading Standardized Measures
Adaptive Consequences
Possible Risks
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Hormones and Behavior
Introduction
Sexual Behavior
Male Sexual Behavior
Female Sexual Behavior
Sexual Dysfunction
Testosterone and Aggression
Parental Behavior
Sex Differences in Energy Homeostasis
Feeding Regulation by Estradiol
Sex Differences in Eating Disorders
Hormones and Cognition
The Stress Hormones and the Stress Response
Sex Differences in the Stress Response
Stress and Drug Abuse
Environmental Factors Influencing Hormones and Behavior
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Human Factors/Ergonomics
Introduction
A Brief History of HF/E
The Rise of Computer Influence in HF/E
Contemporary Issues in HF/E
On Being an HF/E Professional
Future Concerns of HF/E
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Human Intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
Development of Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
Heritability and Malleability of Intelligence
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Human Mating
Introduction
Parental Investment Theory
Mating Systems
Homosexuality
Clash of the Sexes
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Hypnosis
Introduction
History of Hypnosis
Misconceptions About Hypnosis
Contemporary Theories and Research
Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Hypnosis
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Hypochondriasis or Health Anxiety
Introduction
Diagnostics and Prevalence
Treatment
Studies of Long-Term Follow-Up After Psychotherapy Has So Far Not Been Published
The Cognitive-Behavioral Approach to Treatment
Discussion
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud in Context
The Cornerstone of Psychoanalysis
Evolution of Theory and the Emergence of the Tripartite Personality
Id, Ego, and Superego
Summary
Selected Post-Freudian Developments
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Implicit Memory
Early History
Indirect Memory Tests Reveal Implicit Memory
Implicit Memory Supports Priming
Varieties
Brain Basis of Implicit Memory
Other Priming Phenomena and Their Mechanisms
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Impression Formation
Introduction
Impression Formation at First Glance
Impression Formation over Time
Biases in Impression Formation
Automatic and Controlled Aspects of Impression Formation
Neural Correlates of Impression Formation
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Individual Differences in Temperament: Definition, Measurement, and Outcomes
Introduction
What Is Temperament? Psychological and Physiological Perspectives
How Is Temperament Measured? Subjective, Behavioral, and Physiological Measures
What Determines Temperament? Behavioral and Molecular Genetic Investigations
How Does Temperament Predict Developmental Outcome? Risk and Resilience
What Does the Future Hold? Moving Forward
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Individualism
Individualism
Defining Individualism and Collectivism
Cultural Variation in Mentality
Antecedents of Individualism and Collectivism
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Inner Speech
Overview
Theoretical Themes
Methodology of Research
Development of Inner Speech
Characteristics of Inner Speech
Neuroanatomy
Functions
Dysfunctional Inner Speech
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Intellectual Disabilities
Issues Related to Intellectual Disabilities
Defining and Classifying Intellectual Disability
Genetic Etiology
Dual Diagnosis
Interventions
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Intention
Introduction
Understanding the Intentions of Others: Developmental Milestones
Understanding Our Own Intentions
Failures of Intention
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Internet Behavior
Introduction
Demographics and Social Use of ICT
Types of Online Social Environments and Tools
Psychological Aspects of Online Social Environments
Effects of Online Social Environments on Behavior
Managing Impressions
Online Deceptions
Online Group Dynamics
Conclusions and Looking Ahead
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Interpersonal Perception and Communication
Nonverbal Communication
Attributions for Others’ Behaviors
Person Perception and Communication
Communicating About Oneself to Others
Expectancy Effects
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
Depression
Theoretical and Empirical Background
Life Events
Focus and Techniques of IPT
Treatment Phases
Efficacy Review
Practical Training in IPT
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Jealousy
Problems in Defining Jealousy
Meanings of Jealousy and Methods for Its Study
Jealousy in Comparative Perspective
Jealousy and the Law
Jealousy in Social History: Traditional to Victorian
The Twentieth Century Dynamic: The Sibling Jealousy Crisis
Adult Jealousy: New Standards
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Judgment
Psychophysics
Signal Detection Theory
Higher Order Judgments
Judgments and Decision Making
Heuristics
Conclusion
Glossary
Further Reading
Jury Psychology
Rendering the Venire
Jury Selection
Courtroom Influences
Jury Psychodynamics
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Kinship
Kinship and Kindness
Kinship, Mating, and Marriage
Kinship in Mind
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Language Development
The Components of Language
Language Development Over the Life Span
Theories of Language Development
The Biological Bases of Language
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Leadership
Introduction
What Is Leadership?
Leadership and Levels of Analysis
Leadership Antecedents and Consequences
Classical Leadership Views
Contemporary Leadership Views
Alternative Leadership Views
New Wave Leadership Views
Applications for Effective Leadership
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Learned Helplessness
Definition
Initial Findings
The Initial Learned Helplessness Theory
Critique and Reformulation
The Neurobiology of Learned Helplessness
Effects of Learned Helplessness
Assessing Learned Helplessness
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Leisure*
A Brief History of Leisure
Time
Activity/Recreation
State of Mind
Places and Spaces
Cultural Context
Expanding Leisure Meanings
Expanding Leisure Opportunities
The Potential of Leisure
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Logic: Development of Logical Operations
The Logic of High Cognition Versus Low Cognition
Other Compatible Ways of Conceiving the Origin of Logic
A Psychological Construct: The Organismic-Scheme Unit
Development of Logical Operations: Developmental Stages
Levels of Mental Operations According to Piaget and Neo-Piagetians
Logical Reasoning in Adolescence and Adulthood
Final Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Love and Intimacy
Defining and Measuring Love
Passionate Love
Companionate Love and Intimacy
The Endurance of Love
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Marital Dysfunction
Introduction
Defining and Assessing Marital Dysfunction
Impact of Marital Distress
Determinants of Marital Distress
Treatment of Marital Dysfunction
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Mate Selection
Introduction
Perspectives
Relationship Selection
Long-Term Mate Preferences
Short-Term Mate Preferences
Ovulatory Effects
Same-Sex Mate Preferences
Actual Mate Choices
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Media Influence on Behavior
What Is Media Influence?
Media Influence Processes
Effects of Violence in Media
Other Media Effects
Regulating Media Influence
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Meditation: The Science and the Art
Introduction
The Science of Meditation
Description of Kundalini Yoga Meditation Techniques
Descriptions of Other Popular Meditation Techniques
The Art of the Practice and the Application of the Techniques
The Development of a Personal Practice
The Clinical Application of Techniques for Patient Populations
Summary
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Memory
Introduction
Types of Memory
Organization of Long-Term Memory
Reminding
Explicit and Implicit Memory
Evidence from Amnesia
Permanence of Memories
Evidence for the Transience of Memory
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Memory, Neural Substrates
Introduction
Terms and Paradigms
Multiple Memory Systems in the Brain
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Mental Imagery
Introduction
Brief History
Using Cognitive Neuroscience to Study Visual Mental Imagery
Shared Neural Systems Between Visual Mental Imagery and Visual Perception
Summary and Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Military Psychology
History
Industrial–Organizational Psychology
Social Psychology
Applied Experimental Psychology
Clinical/Counseling Psychology
Recent Developments
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
The Mind–Body Problem
What Is the Problem?
The Mind–Body Problem in the Context of Western Science
Attempts to Bridge the Gap
Toward a Revolution in the Mind Sciences
Toward an Empirical Science of the Subjective
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
The Mirror Mechanism
Introduction
The Mirror Mechanism in Monkeys
The Mirror Mechanism in Humans
A General Overview
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Molecular Genetics and Human Behavior
The Conceptual Foundations of Gene Theory
Traditional Quantitative Behavioral Genetics
A Developmental Systems Perspective on the Role of Genes in Development
The Impasse Between Genocentric and Developmental Systems Perspectives
Contemporary Molecular Behavioral Genetics
Genes and Development
Molecular Behavioral Genetics
Further Reading
Moral Development
A Historical Overview
Piaget’s Theory
Kohlberg’s Theory
New Directions
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Moral Emotions
Defining Moral Emotions
Theoretical Model of Moral Emotions
Moral Emotions Research
Moral Emotions and Social Behavior
Educating Moral Emotions
Summary and Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Motivation
Introduction
Approach and Avoidance Motivation
Implicit Motives
Explicit Motivation: The Self-Concept, Goals, and Values
Interactions Between Implicit and Explicit Levels of Motivation
Learning and Performance Goals
Self-Determination Theory and Basic Needs
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Motor Control
How Does Movement Take Place?
General Control Modes
Central and Sensory/Perceptual Elements in Motor Control
Movement Constraints: Computational Simplification
Motor Control Flexibility and Goal Accomplishment
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Near-Death Experiences
Introduction
Phenomenology of NDEs
Aftereffects of NDEs
Psychological Models of NDEs
Comparison of NDEs to Psychopathological Conditions
Physiological Models of NDEs
NDEs in Anesthesia and Cardiac Arrest
Implications of NDEs for the Mind–Brain Problem
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Negotiation
The General Negotiation Paradigm
Issues, Offers, and Outcomes of Negotiation
Strategies and Tactics
Psychological Antecedents of Negotiation Strategy
Social Antecedents of Negotiation Strategy
Expanding the General Negotiation Paradigm
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Neuroesthetics: The Body in Esthetic Experience
Introduction
An Historical Perspective: Einfühlung and Esthetic Experience
Neuroesthetics: Explicit Appraisal and Reward
Neuroesthetics: Embodied Approaches
Conclusions
Glossary
Further Reading
Neuroethics
Neuroscience: The Self, Free Will, and Responsibility
Brain Research, Treatment, and Enhancement
A Neuroscientific Understanding of Moral Judgment and Action
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Neuroexecutive Function
What Is Brain Executive Function?
History of the Executive Concept
Top-Down Cognitive Control
Recent Neuroimaging Studies
Clinical Disorders of Executive Functions
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Neuroimaging of Dementia
Introduction
Neuroimaging to Diagnose Dementia Caused by Nondegenerative Disorders
Neuroimaging to Distinguish the Various Degenerative Dementing Processes
Alzheimer’s Disease
Lewy-body dementia
Frontotemporal dementias, corticobasal degeneration
Use of Neuroimaging for Dementia Research and in the Evaluation of New Therapies
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Neurotechnologies
Introduction
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
Positron Emission Tomography
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetoencephalography
Combination Methods
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Neurotheology
Introduction
Defining Neurotheology
Brain Functions and Theological Argument
Reflections on Major Topics of Neuroscience
Reflections on Major Topics of Theology
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Nonverbal Communication
Introduction
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication
Components and Patterns
Determinants
Functions
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Nature of Symptoms
Epidemiology
Comorbidity
Differential Diagnosis
Models of Development and Maintenance of OCD Symptoms
Treatment
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Diagnosis
Assessment
Etiology
Epidemiology
Treatment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Operant Conditioning
Basic Concepts
The Nature of Reinforcement
Learning Phenomena
Conditioned Reinforcement
Choice
Other Issues
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Organizational Behavior
Microorganizational Behavior
Macroorganizational Behavior
Context Effects
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Our Cognitive Map
Structure and Form of Our Cognitive Map
Building Our Cognitive Map
The Future of Our Cognitive Map
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Pain
Anatomy and Neurochemistry of Pain
The Psychobiology of Pain
The Theories of Pain
Clinical Implications of Pain
Genetics
Assessment of Pain Therapy
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Paranoia
Paranoid Syndromes
Prevalence
Causes of Paranoia
Treatment of Paranoia
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Parenting
Parenting Goals
Parenting and Emotions
Indexes of Relational Quality
Parental Control
Parenting Practices
The Influence of the Child on Parenting
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant websites
Parent–Offspring Conflict
Historical Perspectives on Parent–Offspring Conflict
A Developmental Overview of Parent–Offspring Conflict
Atypical Parent–Offspring Conflict
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Peer Relationships and Influence in Childhood
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives
Friendships
Groups
Peer Acceptance and Rejection
Culture and Peer Relationships
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Perceived Control
Historical Development of Perceived Control
Perspectives and Approaches to Studying Perceived Control
Antecedents of Control
Consequences of Control
Complexities, Controversies, and Challenges
Concluding Comments
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Perceptual Development
Constructivist and Ecological Views of Perceptual Knowledge Development
Perceptual Processing Research in Infancy
Perceptual Development Beyond Infancy
Questions and Controversies Concerning Perceptual Knowledge Development
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Personal Relationships in Everyday Life
The Study of Personal Relationships
The Provisions of Relationships
Mental Models of Relationships: Childhood Experience and Adulthood
Strategies in Developing and Maintaining Relationships
The Role of Outsiders in Relationship Activity
Organization of Roles and Time Management
The Role of Daily Life and Everyday Talk
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Personality Assessment
Measurement Models in Personality Assessment
The History of Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Measures
Personality Assessment and Personality Theory
Applied Uses of Personality Assessment
Final Comments
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Personality Development
Considering Personality at Multiple Levels
Defining Different Types of Stability and Change
Early Emerging Personality Attributes: Child Temperament
Mean-Level and Rank-Order Stability of the Big Five Across the Life Span
What Mechanisms Account for Personality Stability and Change?
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Personality Development and Aging
Introduction
Personality Traits as Units of Analysis
A Lifespan Development Perspective
Different Types of Change and Stability
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Personality Disorders
Personality Disorder Diagnosis: DSM and ICD Classifications
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Dependent Personality Disorder
Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Looking Forward
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Personality, Structure
Major Models of Personality and Trait Affect
Development of a Consensual Hierarchical Structure
Personality Superfactors
Lower Order Traits
Clinical Traits in the Personality Hierarchy
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Persuasion
Persuasion Attempts
Two Routes to Persuasion
Attitude Strength
Resistance
Dissonance: Persuasion from Behavior
Application: Problem of Sustainable Behavior Change in Health Communication
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Phobias
Overview of Specific Phobias
Phenomenology of Specific Phobias
Theoretical Perspectives on Specific Phobias
Treatment of Specific Phobias
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Phonetics
Why Study Phonetics?
A Brief Historical Perspective
Preliminaries to the Study of Phonetics
Articulatory and Acoustic Classification Schemes
Prosody and Suprasegmentals
Features and Feature Detection
Coarticulation
Experimental Phonetics
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Planning
Introduction
Elements of Planning
Early Research on Planning
Measures of Planning Ability
Social Cognitive Aspects of Planning
How to Set Effective Goals
Self-Improvement Plans: The New Year Resolution Fallacy
Delay Discounting
Construal Level and Procrastination
Self-Control and Ego Depletion
Circadian Rhythms
Implementation Intentions
Perfectionism
Planning Fallacy
Related Areas
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Play
Introduction
What Is Play?
Locomotor Play
Object Play
Social Play
Pretend Play
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Pornography
Defining Pornography
History and Content of Sexually Explicit Media
Consumption of Sexually Explicit Material
Effects of Sexually Explicit Material on Feelings, Beliefs, and Evaluations
Effects of Sexually Explicit Material: Behavior
General Summary and Critique
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Positive Psychology
Introduction
What Is Positive Psychology?
The Pillars of Positive Psychology
Well-Being Across Time and Culture
What Is the Good Life?
Applied Positive Psychology and Positive Interventions
Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
General Description
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) Conceptions
PTSD Criteria
Prevalence
Morbidity
Etiology
Treatment
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Preference Judgments (Individuals)
Introduction
How Rational Are Preference Judgments?
How Do Subjective Experiences Influence Preferences?
How Do Personality Factors Affect Preferences?
How Do Deliberation and (Un)Conscious Thought Affect Preferences?
How Well Do People Predict Their Preferences?
How Are Preferences Assessed?
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes (Racial Bias)
Overview
A Brief History of Research on Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
New Perspectives and Current Trends for Research on Prejudice and Stereotypes
The Effects of Prejudice and Stereotypes on the Self
Methods to Study Prejudice and Stereotypes
Reducing Prejudice
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
Symptoms, Epidemiology, and Classification
Biopsychosocial Perspective of PMS
Assessment and Treatment of PMS
PMDD Diagnosis, Epidemiology, and Quality of Life Impact
Biopsychosocial Perspective of PMDD
Assessment and Treatment of PMDD
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Primate Cognition
Introduction
Physical Cognition
Social Cognition
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Problem Solving
What Is a Problem?
What Is Problem Solving?
What Are the Cognitive Processes in Problem Solving?
What Kinds of Knowledge Are Required for Problem Solving?
What Are the Approaches to the Study of Problem Solving?
What Are Some Enduring Issues in Problem Solving?
Past and Future Research Trends
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice
Post-Freudian Development of Theory
Object Relations Theory
Self-Psychology
Postmodernist Views
Attachment Theory
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychological Predictors of Heart Disease
Historical Perspective
Disease-Prone Personalities
Social Integration
Causal Mechanisms
Noncausal Effects
Self-Healing Personalities
Interventions
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychology and Religion
Psychology and Religion
History of Psychology and Religion
Major Methodological Stances in the Psychology of Religion
Major Content Areas in the Psychology of Religion
Controversial Issue in Psychology and Religion
Future Prospects
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychology of Reading
Introduction
Historical Review
Perceptual Processes in Reading
The Role of Phonology in Reading
Developmental Aspects of Reading
Dyslexia
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychology, Science, and Astrology
Psychology: The Scientific Study of Behavior
The Role of Theory in Science
Scientific Method
Astrology: An Example of Bad Science
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychopathology: Diagnosis, Assessment, and Classification
Definitional Issues: Abnormalcy Versus Normalcy
Theories of Cause
Classification and Diagnosis
Assessment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Psychophysics
Components of a Psychophysical Experiment
Classification of Psychophysical Experiments
Varieties of Psychophysical Procedure
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Psychotherapy
Introduction
Recipients of Psychotherapy
Basic Issues in Psychotherapy
Theoretical Orientations
Factors that Contribute to Therapeutic Success
Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Reading and Phonological Processing
Reading and Writing Exploit Distinctive Properties of Spoken Language
Alphabetic Writing and Syllabic Writing Convey Linguistic Messages Visually by Creating Symbols for the Meaningless Particles of Words
A Role for Phonology in Semantically Based, Nonsegmental Writing
Awareness of Phonemes, Key to Grasping the Alphabetic Principle
English Spelling Is a Hybrid, Based Only Partly on Phonology
Further Steps Toward Literacy
Dyslexia: A Phonological Deficit Affecting the Decoding of Print
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Reasoning
Reasoning and Logic
Developmental Theories of Logical Reasoning
Comparison and Conclusions Regarding the Theories
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Retirement
Introduction
History of Retirement
Definitions of Retirement
The Retirement Process
Self-Management
Retirement Planning
The Changing Nature of Retirement
How Do Future Generations View Retirement?
New Concepts of Later Life
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Risk-Compensating Behavior
Background
Theoretical Construct
Empirical Results: Driving Behavior
Concluding Remarks
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Risk-Taking Behavior (Young Male Syndrome)
Young Male Syndrome
Sex Differences in Risk-Taking
Age Differences in Risk-Taking
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Savant Syndrome
Introduction
What Is Savant Syndrome?
History of Savant Syndrome
How Common Are Savant Skills?
What Is the Source of Savant Talent?
How Is the Savant Brain Different?
Where Do Savant Skills Come From?
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Schizoid and Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Introduction
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Schizophrenia
Introduction
Brief History of Schizophrenia
Prevalence and Gender Differences
Onset, Course, and Prognosis
Clinical Symptoms and Diagnosis
Etiological Theories
Treatment of Schizophrenia
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Selective Mutism
Diagnosis
Epidemiology
Relationship to Social Anxiety Disorder and Shyness
Oppositionality
Etiology
Assessment
Treatment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Self-Defeating Behaviors
Maladaptive Cognitive Schemas
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Fear of Success
Learned Helplessness
Self-Handicapping Behaviors
Procrastination
Perfectionism
Failures in Self-Regulation
Self-Defeating Personality
Insecure Attachment Styles
Selective Attention and Memory
Difference from Psychiatric Disorders
Treatment
The Challenge of Treatment
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Self-Efficacy
Introduction
Defining Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Mechanisms of Self-Efficacy
Adaptive Benefits of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Self-Efficacy Interventions
The Agentic Worldview of Self-Efficacy Theory
Impact of Self-Efficacy Theory on Psychology
Future Directions
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem Defined
Perspectives on Self-Esteem
Measurement
Self-Esteem and Responses to Failure
Self-Esteem-Related Motives: Self-Enhancement, Self-Verification, and Self-Protection
Development Across the Lifespan
Self-Esteem and Other Personality Dimensions
Emotions and Psychopathology
Self-Esteem and Other Real Life Outcomes
The ‘Dark Side’ of HSE
Relationship Functioning and Self-Esteem
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Introduction
Some Early Experiments
Teacher Expectation Effects
The Meta-Analytic Evidence for the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The Practical Importance of Experimental Effects
The 10-Arrow Model
The Four-Factor ‘Theory’
Beyond Classrooms and Laboratories
Conclusion
Glossary
Further Reading
Self-Regulatory Skills and Behavior Change
Introduction
Leading Theories of Self-Regulation
Measurement of Self-Regulation in the Context of Behavior
Self-Regulation in the Context of Academic Performance
Self-Regulation in the Context of Health Behavior Change
Self-Regulation in the Context of Sport Performance
Self-Regulation and Coping Behaviors
Conclusions and Outlook
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Self-Relaxation
Relaxation as Reduced Arousal: The Relaxation Response
Neuropsychological Conceptualizations of Relaxation
Types of Relaxation
The Uses of Relaxation
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Semantic Memory
Semantic Memory Is One Type of Memory
Language, Concepts, Categories, and Semantic Networks
Knowledge and Generic Memory Encompass Semantic and Nonsemantic Memory
Knowledge, Priming, and Awareness
Standard Theory of the Semantic Memory System
Semantic Memory Includes Embodied (Grounded) Knowledge
Brain Basis of Knowledge
Frontal Lobe Controls Knowledge Encoding and Retrieval
Simulation, Mental Imagery, and Semantic Memory
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sensation Seeking
Theoretical and Historical Background for SS
Measuring SS and Characterizing Sensation Seekers
Biological Correlates of Sensation Seeking
Social Influences on the Expression of SS
Conclusion: A Biosocial Model of SS
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Sense of Smell
Introduction
The Olfactory Receptors
The Olfactory Bulbs
The Olfactory Cortex
Development of Olfactory Perception
Mammalian Pheromones
Factors That Influence the Ability to Smell in Adulthood
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Sense of Taste (Effect on Behavior)
Concepts of Taste
Anatomical and Physiological Substrates in Taste Receptors
Lifespan Development of Taste (In Utero to Elderly)
Taste Disorders
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
The Sense of Touch
Sensors in the Skin
Touch in the Brain
Tactile Acuity
Form Perception
Texture Perception
Motion Perception
The Role of Touch in Object Manipulation and Tool Use
Pleasant Touch
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sentence Processing
Sentence Structure
Structural Ambiguity
Incremental Processing
Models of Sentence Processing
Incomplete Processing
Sentence Complexity
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Separation Anxiety
Introduction
Clinical Description
Assessment
Differential Diagnosis
Separation Anxiety and School Refusal
Treatment
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sex Differences
Introduction
Sexual Selection
Sexual Selection and Human Sex Differences
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sex Roles
Further Definitions and Models
Gender Role Development Across the Life Span
Major Conflicts in the Field of Sex Role Research
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Sexual Behavior
Before Puberty
Theoretical Interlude
Puberty and Afterward
Fetishes and Atypical Sexual Behavior
Sexual Problems
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sign Languages
A Note on Modality Differences
Myths About Sign Languages
Linguistic Structure of Sign Languages
The Acquisition of Sign Languages
Brain Organization
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Sleep, Biological Rhythms, and Performance
Sleep Characteristics and Function
Circadian Rhythms
Sleep Need
Sleep Across the Lifespan
Sleep Deprivation and Performance
Factors Affecting the Impact of Sleepiness on Performance
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Sleep Disorders
Introduction
History of Sleep Medicine
Major Sleep Disorders
Testing in the Sleep Center
Management of Sleep Disorders
Social Implications
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Social Anxiety Disorder
Introduction
Description
Etiology
Prevention
Pharmacological Treatments
Psychological Treatments
Combined Pharmacotherapy and CBT
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Cognition
Introduction
Social Cognition, Traditional Social Psychology, and Cognitive Psychology
Historical Background and Intellectual Origins
The Structure and Processing of Social Information
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Comparison
Introduction
Festinger’s Original Social Comparison Theory
Directions and Motives
Milestones
Factors that Influence Comparisons
Applications to Health
Future Directions
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Development (Attachment, Imprinting)
Roots of Attachment Theory: Ethology and Imprinting
Early Social Connections – Building an Attachment Relationship
The Need for Attachment
Attachment Across Cultures
Individual Differences in Attachment Security
Early Experience and Attachment Security
Infant Characteristics and Attachment Security
Correlates and Sequelae of Early Attachment
Is Attachment Security Stable over Time?
The Attachment System in Childhood and Adolescence
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Exchange
Exchange Networks and Power
Types of Exchange
Solidarity
Trust
Future Directions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Loafing (and Facilitation)
Social Loafing
Social Facilitation
Integrating Social Loafing and Social Facilitation
Relationships with Other Phenomena
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Support
Types of Social Support
Relation of Social Support to Physical and Mental Health
Explaining the Positive Effects of Social Support
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Social Values (Influence on Behavior)
Defining Social Values
Problems Measuring Social Value Orientations
Decomposed Games
Interdependence and Social Values
The Logic of the Prisoners’ Dilemma
Research Findings on Social Value Orientations
When Social Value Orientations Do Not Make a Difference
Origins of Social Value Orientations
Conclusions
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Socioemotional Development
Current Perspectives on Emotional Development
The Intersection of Genes and Environment in Socioemotional Development
Socioemotional Development and the Developing Brain
Emotion Regulation
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Somatoform Disorders
Introduction
Historical Overview
DSM-IV Compared to ICD-10
Other Conditions Approximating the SDs
Is SD a Mental or Somatic Disorder?
Epidemiology
Treatment
Challenges and Controversies
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Spatial Orientation
General Definitions and Issues
Perception and Action: Spatial Orientation as Something that People Perceive or Figure Out and Know
History of Concepts and Research
Principles and Research Strategies
Glossary
Further Reading
Spatial Perception
What Is Spatial Perception and What Is It For?
How Do We Perceive Spatial Information?
How Is Spatial Information Represented?
Spatial Perception in the Service of Action
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Stress and Blood Pressure Dysregulation*
Introduction
Origins of Stress-Psychophysiological Investigations
Strategy of Psychophysiological Investigations into Stress-Outcomes Research
BP and Hypertension
The First Study of Acute BP Response
Does BP Reactivity Predict Future HTN and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)?
Predictors/Determinants of Cardiovascular Reactivity
Limitations of the Reactivity Hypothesis
Summary
New Developments in Stress-Psychophysiological Research
A New Approach: Cognitive Underpinnings of Sustained Biological Dysregulation
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Stress and Illness
Brief History of the Interaction of Mind and Body
Physiological Stress Responses
Defining Stressors and Stress Responses
Mechanisms Linking Stress to Disease
Vulnerability to Stress-Induced Illness
Building Stress Resilience
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Studying
Attention
Goal-Setting
Studying Strategies
The Importance of Self-Testing
Discussion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Subjective Culture
Introduction
Theory
Sample Findings
Applications
Cross-Cultural Training
Extension to the Study of Individualism and Collectivism
An Extension to the Study of Self-Deception Across Cultures
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Subliminal Perception
Definition
Methodology
Historical Background
Neurological Evidence for Subliminal Perception
Downstream Effects of Subliminal Perception: Attitudes and Judgments
Downstream Effects of Subliminal Perception: Behavior
Relevance to the Real World
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Suicide
Epidemiology of Suicide
Societal Suicide Rate
Causes of Individual Suicide
Protective Factors
Psychological Autopsy
Preventing Suicide
Surviving the Suicide of a Significant Other
Is Suicide Immoral?
Can Suicide Be Rational?
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Surprise
Pretheoretical Characterization of Surprise
A Short History of Research on Surprise
Theories of Surprise: The Cognitive-Evolutionary Model
Surprise, the Startle Reaction, and the Orienting Response
Is Surprise an Emotion?
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Synesthesia
Introduction
Variants of Synesthesia and Phenomenology
History of Synesthesia Research
Prevalence and Inheritance of Synesthesia
Neurological and Developmental Roots of Synesthesia
Costs and Benefits of Synesthesia
Concluding Remarks
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Syntax
Phrase Structure
The Lexicon
Syntactic Transformations
Trace Theory
Constraints on Transformations
Case Theory
Logical Form
Binding Theory
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Temperament and Individual Differences
The Meaning of Temperament
Origins of Temperament
Neurobiology
Infant Temperaments
Variation in Reactions to the Unfamiliar
High- and Low-Reactive Infants
Temperament and Gender
The Biology of the Sexes
Temperament and Ethnicity
Temperament and Mental Illness
Summary
Further Reading
Terrorism
Defining Terrorism
History and Trends in Terrorism
Types and Tactics of Terrorism
What Makes a Terrorist? Approaches and Advances in the Study of Terrorism
The Role of the Media
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Test Behavior
Introduction
Physical and Physiological Conditions
Cognitive Processes and Strategies
Metacognition
Individual Differences
Social Factors
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Tickling
Two Forms of Tickle: Knismesis and Gargalesis
Tickling in Nonhumans
Ontogeny of Tickle
Positive Emotion and Tickle
Sociality of Tickling
Automatic Response
The Unpleasant Side
Physiology
Functional Theories
Final Remarks
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Touch
Introduction
Information Transfer Through the Skin
Counting Tactile Stimuli
Memory for Touch
Attentional Constraints on Tactile Perception
Spatial Tactile Attention
Attending to the Sense of Touch
Tactile Perception and Attention Following Posture Change
Tactile Awareness
Cross-Modal Interactions Between Touch and the Other Senses
The Affective Aspects of Touch
Touch: What the Future Holds
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Uncertainty
Concepts and Definitions
Perception and Judgment
Social Constructions of Uncertainty
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Violence
Biological Perspectives
Other Psychological Perspectives
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Visual Motion Perception
Motion Integration and Segmentation
3D Formotion Model
The Form Processing System
The Motion Processing System
Converting Motion into Action during Perceptual Decision-Making
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Visual Neglect
Introduction: Clinical and Cognitive Relevance
Clinical Presentation and Functional Consequences
Assessment
Neuropsychological Insights and Cognitive Mechanisms Implicated
Neural Basis (Lesion Correlates)
Recovery and Rehabilitation
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Visual Perception
Hubel and Wiesel: Giving Vision Research an Explicit Edge
Edges at Marr’s Three Levels of Analysis
The Visual Brain as a Modular and Hierarchical System
Interactions in the Visual Hierarchy
Active Vision
Concluding Comments
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Vocational Choice
Overview and Historical Perspectives
Vocational Choice as a Matching Process
Vocational Choice as a Decision-Making Process
Self as an Integrating Factor in Vocational Choice
Social Psychological Perspectives on Vocational Choice
Special Considerations
Summary
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
War
The Anthropology and Archeology of Warfare: Is the Propensity to Make War Innate?
What is the Role of Warfare in the Evolution of Human Societies?
How is Warfare Collectively Represented in the Psyche or Mentality of Peoples?
What is the Relationship Between Warfare and Individual and Collective Psychological Functioning Today?
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Word Retrieval
The Mental Lexicon
Models of Word Retrieval
Factors Influencing Word Retrieval
Problems in Word Retrieval
Word Retrieval in Specific Populations
Conclusion
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Work Efficiency and Motivation
Introduction
The Nature of Efficiency
The Nature of Motivation
Central Issues in Efficiency and Motivation
Motivational Techniques
Concluding Remarks on Efficiency and Motivation
See also
Glossary
Further Reading
Index
Author Index
VR
V. S. Ramachandran is Director of the Center for Brain and Cognition and Distinguished Professor with the Psychology Department and Neurosciences Program at the University of California, San Diego, and Adjunct Professor of Biology at the Salk Institute. Ramachandran initially trained as a doctor and subsequently obtained a Ph.D. from Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. Ramachandran's early work was on visual perception but he is best known for his experiments in behavioral neurology which, despite their apparent simplicity, have had a profound impact on the way we think about the brain. He has been called "The Marco Polo of neuroscience" by Richard Dawkins and "The modern Paul Broca" by Eric Kandel.
In 2005 he was awarded the Henry Dale Medal and elected to an honorary life membership by the Royal Institution of Great Britain, where he also gave a Friday evening discourse (joining the ranks of Michael Faraday, Thomas Huxley, Humphry Davy, and dozens of Nobel Laureates). His other honors and awards include fellowships from All Souls College, Oxford, and from Stanford University (Hilgard Visiting Professor); the Presidential Lecture Award from the American Academy of Neurology, two honorary doctorates, the annual Ramon Y Cajal award from the International Neuropsychiatry Society, and the Ariens-Kappers medal from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences. In 2003 he gave the annual BBC Reith lectures and was the first physician/psychologist to give the lectures since they were begun by Bertrand Russel in 1949. In 1995 he gave the Decade of the Brain lecture at the 25th annual (Silver Jubilee) meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. In 2010 he delivered the annual Jawaharlal Nehru memorial lecture in New Delhi, India. Most recently the President of India conferred on him the second highest civilian award and honorific title in India, the Padma Bhushan. And TIME magazine named him on their list of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2011.
Ramachandran has published over 180 papers in scientific journals (including five invited review articles in the Scientific American). He is author of the acclaimed book "Phantoms in the Brain" that has been translated into nine languages and formed the basis for a two part series on Channel Four TV (UK) and a 1 hour PBS special in USA. NEWSWEEK magazine has named him a member of "The Century Club" one of the "hundred most prominent people to watch in the next century." He has been profiled in the New Yorker Magazine and appeared on the Charlie Rose Show. His book, "The Tell Tale Brain" is a New York Times best-seller.