Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications
Li-Battery Safety
- 1st Edition - September 20, 2018
- Imprint: Elsevier
- Editors: Jürgen Garche, Klaus Brandt
- Language: English
- Hardback ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 6 3 7 7 7 - 2
- eBook ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 6 4 0 0 8 - 6
Safety of Lithium Batteries describes how best to assure safety during all phases of the life of Lithium ion batteries (production, transport, use, and disposal). About 5 billion L… Read more
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Request a sales quoteSafety of Lithium Batteries describes how best to assure safety during all phases of the life of Lithium ion batteries (production, transport, use, and disposal). About 5 billion Li-ion cells are produced each year, predominantly for use in consumer electronics. This book describes how the high-energy density and outstanding performance of Li-ion batteries will result in a large increase in the production of Li-ion cells for electric drive train vehicle (xEV) and battery energy storage (BES or EES) purposes. The high-energy density of Li battery systems comes with special hazards related to the materials employed in these systems.
The manufacturers of cells and batteries have strongly reduced the hazard probability by a number of measures. However, absolute safety of the Li system is not given as multiple incidents in consumer electronics have shown.
- Presents the relationship between chemical and structure material properties and cell safety
- Relates cell and battery design to safety as well as system operation parameters to safety
- Outlines the influences of abuses on safety and the relationship to battery testing
- Explores the limitations for transport and storage of cells and batteries
- Includes recycling, disposal and second use of lithium ion batteries
Electrochemists, chemists, and chemical engineers, material scientists, electrical and mechanical engineers involved in all phases of the life of a battery (research, development, production, transport, use, and disposal). It could also be useful to electrical, mechanical and safety engineers, transportation dispatchers, architects as well as car manufacturers, fleet operators, park house operators, tunnel operators, car wash operators, car service stations
CHAPTER 1 General Battery Safety Considerations
Klaus Brandt and Juergen Garche
1.1 General Safety Aspects .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Safety Integrity Level ...................................................................................... 4
1.2 General Battery Safety Aspects ................................................................................. 8
1.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Nature of Battery Safety Risks........................................................................ 9
1.2.3 Triggers of Battery Safety Incidents ............................................................. 10
1.2.4 Probabilty and Controlability of Safety Event Triggers ............................... 12
1.2.5 Assessing and Reducing the Severity of Safety Events................................ 14
1.2.6 Holistic Concept of Safety............................................................................. 15
1.2.7 Dealing With Safety Events .......................................................................... 17
1.2.8 Reuse and Recycling...................................................................................... 17
1.2.9 Transportation and Storage............................................................................ 18
Abbreviations............................................................................................................ 18
References................................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 2 General Overview of Non-Lithium Battery Systems
and their Safety Issues ....................................................................... 21
Uwe Koehler
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 21
2.2 Battery Hazards and Incidents ................................................................................. 22
2.2.1 Battery Assemblies: Implications to Safety .................................................. 22
2.2.2 Classification of Hazards ............................................................................... 23
2.2.3 Battery Safety - Categories............................................................................ 24
2.2.4 Safety under Incidents and Abusive Treatment ............................................ 24
2.3 Aqueous Electrolyte Batteries.................................................................................. 24
2.3.1 Cell Types and Internal Structure.................................................................. 24
2.3.2 Active Materials: Health Aspects .................................................................. 26
2.3.3 Operational Safety of Aqueous Battery Systems .......................................... 27
2.4 High-Temperature (HT) Batteries............................................................................ 36
2.4.1 Materials and Design of HT Cells (NaS, NaNiCl) ....................................... 37
2.4.2 General System Aspects of HT Batteries...................................................... 38
2.4.3 Safety of Sodium_Sulfur Batteries............................................................... 39
2.4.4 Safety of Sodium_Nickel Chloride Batteries ............................................... 40
2.5 Redox Flow Battery Systems................................................................................... 42
2.5.1 Materials and Design of Redox Flow Battery Systems ................................ 42
2.5.2 General Aspects of Redox Flow Battery Systems ........................................ 43
2.5.3 Safety of Redox Flow Battery Systems......................................................... 43
Abbreviations............................................................................................................ 45
References................................................................................................................. 45
CHAPTER 3 Overview of Rechargeable Lithium Battery Systems......................... 47
Peter Kurzweil and Klaus Brandt
3.1 Basic Cell Chemistry ............................................................................................... 48
3.1.1 Lithium-Metal Systems.................................................................................. 48
3.1.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries..................................................................................... 49
3.2 Positive Electrode Materials .................................................................................... 50
3.2.1 Transition Metal Oxides ................................................................................ 51
3.2.2 Lithium Metal Phosphates and Polyoxyanion Structures ............................. 58
3.2.3 Transition Metal Sulfides............................................................................... 59
3.3 Negative Electrode Materials................................................................................... 60
3.3.1 Graphite and Amorphous Carbon.................................................................. 60
3.3.2 Lithium Titanate (LTO) ................................................................................. 64
3.3.3 Lithium Alloys ............................................................................................... 65
3.3.4 Tin Composite Electrode (TCO) ................................................................... 65
3.3.5 Lithium Metal Nitrides .................................................................................. 66
3.3.6 Transition Metal Vanadates ........................................................................... 66
3.3.7 Nanocomposites ............................................................................................. 66
3.4 Electrolytes ............................................................................................................... 67
3.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes......................................................................................... 69
3.4.2 Solid Electrolytes ........................................................................................... 74
3.4.3 The Solid-Electrolyte Interface (SEI)............................................................ 75
3.5 Separators ................................................................................................................. 76
3.6 Outlook: Research Activities and Challenges ......................................................... 78
3.6.1 5 V Positive Electrode Materials................................................................... 79
3.6.2 Lithium_Sulfur Battery................................................................................. 80
Abbreviations............................................................................................................ 81
References................................................................................................................. 82
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 82
CHAPTER 4 Safety Aspects of Lithium Primary Batteries ..................................... 83
Michael Pozin and Steven Wicelinski
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 84
4.2 Lithium Primary Cells’ Classification ..................................................................... 85
4.3 Composition of Popular Industrial and Military Lithium Primary Cells................ 88
4.4 Composition of Popular Commercial Lithium Primary Cells ................................ 88
4.5 Reactions Related to Thermal Runaway ................................................................. 88
4.5.1 Reactions of Lithium With Electrolyte ......................................................... 89
4.5.2 Reactions Involving Cathode Materials ........................................................ 92
4.5.3 Other Cathode Reactions Involving Current Collectors ............................... 92
4.5.4 Reaction of Active Cathode Material With Electrolyte
and Other Materials ....................................................................................... 93
4.5.5 Other Parasitic Reactions for Consideration ................................................. 94
4.6 Thermal Balance Considerations ............................................................................. 94
4.6.1 Electrochemical Reaction Contribution to Heat Balance ............................. 94
4.6.2 Electrochemical Polarization ......................................................................... 95
4.6.3 Mass Transport Polarization .......................................................................... 96
4.6.4 Heat Dissipation............................................................................................. 97
4.6.5 Heat of Parasitic Reactions............................................................................ 98
4.6.6 Thermal Modeling ......................................................................................... 99
4.7 Design and Process Considerations ......................................................................... 99
4.7.1 Electrolyte .................................................................................................... 99
4.7.2 Electrodes ................................................................................................... 100
4.7.3 PTC (Positive Thermal Coefficient).......................................................... 100
4.7.4 Cell Vent .................................................................................................... 101
4.7.5 Separator..................................................................................................... 102
4.7.6 Polymeric Components .............................................................................. 103
4.7.7 Metal Components ..................................................................................... 103
4.7.8 Interfacial Surface Area, Void Volume, and Anode
to Cathode Capacity Ratio......................................................................... 105
4.7.9 Electrode Assembly Design....................................................................... 106
4.7.10 Final Cell Design and Cell Conditioning .................................................. 107
4.8 Coin Cells ............................................................................................................... 107
4.9 Safety Tests and Requirements.............................................................................. 108
4.10 Summary................................................................................................................. 108
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... 109
Abbreviations and Symbols.................................................................................... 109
References............................................................................................................... 110
CHAPTER 5 Safety of Secondary-Lithium Batteries: An Introduction................. 113
Erik J. Spek
5.1 Hazards of Fossil Fuels and Batteries ................................................................... 113
5.2 Relative Safety Performance Through Standards.................................................. 114
5.3 Final Product Safety............................................................................................... 116
5.4 Automotive Traction Batteries Safety ................................................................... 116
5.5 Safety Testing......................................................................................................... 117
5.6 Battery Certification and Testing........................................................................... 121
5.7 Stationary Energy Storage ..................................................................................... 122
5.8 Consumer Battery Applications’ Safety ................................................................ 124
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... 125
Relevant Standards ................................................................................................. 126
Further Reading ...................................................................................................... 126
CHAPTER 6 General Overview of Li-Secondary Battery Safety Issues ............... 127
Klaus Brandt and Juergen Garche
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 127
6.2 Definition of Risks ................................................................................................. 129
6.2.1 Risks Originating From Batteries ................................................................ 129
6.2.2 Triggers of Risks.......................................................................................... 130
6.3 Sources of Risks Along the Value Chain .............................................................. 131
6.3.1 Manufacturers............................................................................................... 131
6.3.2 Users............................................................................................................. 135
6.3.3 Other Stakeholders....................................................................................... 136
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... 140
References............................................................................................................... 141
CHAPTER 7 Lithium-Secondary Cell: Sources of Risks and Their Effects ......... 143
7A Sources of Risk ...................................................................................................... 145
Christopher Lyness
7A.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 145
7A.2 Conditions and Mechanisms That Cause Hazardous Energy
Release.......................................................................................................... 147
7A.3 Failure Pathway............................................................................................ 149
7A.3.1 Over-Temperature .........................................................................150
7A.3.2 Overcharge ....................................................................................152
7A.3.3 Overvoltage ...................................................................................155
7A.3.4 Undervoltage and Overdischarge (or Undercharge).....................155
7A.3.5 Overcurrent....................................................................................156
7A.3.6 In Situ Short Circuit......................................................................158
7A.3.7 Mechanical Failure........................................................................160
7A.3.8 Penetration.....................................................................................160
7A.3.9 Crush .............................................................................................162
7A.3.10 Manufacturing Induced Failures ...................................................163
7A.3.11 Multicell Failures ..........................................................................163
7A.4 Summary ...................................................................................................... 165
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 166
References .................................................................................................... 166
7B Risk Potentials by Materials .................................................................................. 167
Meike Fleischhammer
7B.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 167
7B.2 Safety Hazard of Cell Materials .................................................................. 167
7B.2.1 Cathode (Intercalation) Materials ...................................................167
7B.2.2 Anode...............................................................................................174
7B.2.3 Electrolyte........................................................................................181
7B.2.4 Inactive Components.......................................................................184
7B.3 Prospects to the Safety Hazard of Conversion Materials............................ 186
7B.4 Risk Potential at the Cell Level................................................................... 187
7B.5 Summary....................................................................................................... 189
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 189
References .................................................................................................... 190
7C Analysis of Gases Emitted in Safety Events ......................................................... 196
Michael Abert
7C.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 196
7C.2 Risk Potential at the Cell Level................................................................... 197
7C.3 Analytical Techniques for Qualitative and Quantitative
Determination of Gases Related to LIBs..................................................... 198
7C.4 Emitted Chemical Compounds .................................................................... 203
7C.5 Benefit of Time Resolved Analysis of Emitted Chemical
Compounds................................................................................................... 205
7C.6 Impact of the Kind of Abuse Test on Gas Emission Spectrum.................. 208
7C.7 Transfer of Laboratory Results to Automotive Application ....................... 209
7C.8 Full Scale Fire Test in Automotive Application of LIBs............................ 212
7C.9 Summary....................................................................................................... 213
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 214
References .................................................................................................... 214
Further Reading ........................................................................................... 215
7D Risks Due to Grown-in Internal Shorts ................................................................. 216
Brian Barnett, Christopher H. McCoy, David Ofer and Suresh Sriramulu
7D.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 216
7D.2 Grown-In Internal Shorts ............................................................................. 217
7D.2.1 Grown-In Internal Shorts: Field Failures .......................................217
7D.2.2 Impact/Penetration: Hard Internal Short Circuits...........................220
7D.2.3 Significance of the Magnitude of the Internal Short
Resistance........................................................................................222
7D.2.4 Contrasting Grown-In Internal Shorts to Mechanical Triggers .....223
7D.3 Cascading of Thermal Runaway in Battery Packs...................................... 224
7D.4 Framework for Grouping and Understanding Triggers and Risks.............. 224
7D.5 Conventional Approaches to Battery Monitoring for Safety ...................... 226
7D.6 Internal Short Circuit Detection Technologies............................................ 227
7D.6.1 Universal Detection Technology ....................................................228
7D.6.2 Real-Time Detection Technology...................................................230
7D.6.3 Examples of Implementations of Short Detection .........................231
7D.7 Measures to Avoid Thermal Runaway ........................................................ 234
7D.8 Summary ...................................................................................................... 237
References .................................................................................................... 238
7E Effect of Electrical Energy and Aging on Cell Safety.......................................... 239
Martin Gilljam, Helge Weydahl, Sissel Forseth, Preben J.S. Vie
and Torleif Lian
7E.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 239
7E.2 Effect of Cell Electrical Energy on Safety .................................................. 240
7E.2.1 Effect of Cell Size on Safety ..........................................................240
7E.2.2 Effect of Energy Density on Safety ................................................241
7E.2.3 Effect of SoC on Safety ..................................................................242
7E.3 Effect of Cell Aging on Safety .................................................................... 245
7E.3.1 Aging Factors ..................................................................................245
7E.3.2 Aging Mechanisms ..........................................................................246
7E.3.3 Thermal Stability of Aged Cells .....................................................256
7E.4 Summary....................................................................................................... 263
Abbrevations ................................................................................................ 263
References .................................................................................................... 264
Further Reading ........................................................................................... 266
CHAPTER 8 Managing Safety Risk by Manufacturers......................................... 267
8A Managing Safety Risk by Cell Manufacturers ...................................................... 269
Bor Yann Liaw, FuQing Wang and YiMin Wei
8A.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 269
8A.2 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) ................................................ 271
8A.3 Basic Considerations of Cell Safety ............................................................ 272
8A.3.1 Thermodynamics .............................................................................272
8A.3.2 Kinetics............................................................................................281
8A.3.3 Cell Design Metrics ........................................................................291
8A.4 Cell Packaging, Battery Management, and Abuse Prevention ................... 291
8A.4.1 Cell Fabrication, Quality Control, and Packaging .........................291
8A.4.2 Safety Devices.................................................................................292
8A.4.3 Battery Management .......................................................................293
8A.5 Quality Control, Storage, Maintenance, and Repair ................................... 296
8A.6 Failure Detection, Diagnosis, and Prognosis............................................... 296
8A.6.1 Ultrahigh Precision Charger (UHPC).............................................298
8A.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 300
Acknowledgments........................................................................................ 300
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 300
References .................................................................................................... 301
8B Managing of Risk by Battery Manufacturers ........................................................ 303
Klaus Brandt, J ¨ org Schultheiß and Markus Schweizer-Berberich
8B.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 303
8B.2 Functional Safety.......................................................................................... 303
8B.2.1 Applicable Standards.......................................................................303
8B.2.2 Hazard Analysis of the Cell ............................................................306
8B.2.3 Technical Safety Concept at Cell Level .........................................308
8B.3 Safe Battery Pack Architecture.................................................................... 310
8B.3.1 System Overview ............................................................................310
8B.3.2 The Cell of Choice ..........................................................................313
8B.3.3 Module Concept ..............................................................................314
8B.4 Battery Management System ....................................................................... 316
8B.4.1 BMS Architecture............................................................................316
8B.4.2 Measurements..................................................................................316
8B.4.3 State Functions ................................................................................318
8B.4.4 Cell Maintenance.............................................................................319
8B.4.5 ASIL Decomposition.......................................................................319
8B.4.6 Mitigation of the Effect of Cell Failures ........................................320
8B.5 Thermal Management .................................................................................. 320
8B.6 Electromechanical Design............................................................................ 322
8B.6.1 General Electromechanical Layout.................................................322
8B.6.2 Insulation Coordination...................................................................323
8B.6.3 Coordination Between Contactors and Fuses: Battery
Junction Box....................................................................................323
8B.6.4 Contactors for HV Battery Systems ...............................................326
8B.6.5 Recent Approaches for the Electromechanics of a Battery
System .............................................................................................328
8B.7 Mechanical Design ....................................................................................... 330
8B.8 Summary....................................................................................................... 331
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 331
References .................................................................................................... 332
8C Managing of Risk by Car Manufacturers .............................................................. 336
Sonia Dandl, Thomas W¨ ohrle and Peter Lamp
8C.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 336
8C.2 Overview of Safety-Related Regulations, Standards and Norms
Regarding xEVs ........................................................................................... 338
8C.2.1 Comparison of Abuse Tests Specified in UN
ECE R 100-2, GB/T 31467.3-2015, and UN 38.3 .........................339
8C.2.2 ISO 26262........................................................................................341
8C.2.3 UN ECE R 100-2 ............................................................................341
8C.2.4 Crash Test Regulations ...................................................................342
8C.3 Ways to Manage Risks by xEV Design ...................................................... 344
8C.4 Allocation of Rescue Documents in Case of an Accident .......................... 346
8C.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 347
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 347
References .................................................................................................... 347
8D Managing of Risk by Manufacturers of Consumer Equipment ............................ 349
J.A. Jeevarajan
8D.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 349
8D.2 What is the Risk? ......................................................................................... 350
8D.3 Manufacturing Safety................................................................................... 351
8D.4 Design Safety ............................................................................................... 353
8D.5 The "Smart Circuit Board" .......................................................................... 356
8D.6 Recent Catastrophic Events ......................................................................... 358
8D.7 Consumer Cell and Battery Shipments........................................................ 361
8D.8 Summary and Recommendations ................................................................ 362
Acknowledgments........................................................................................ 362
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 362
References .................................................................................................... 363
8E Managing of Risk by Manufacturers of BESS...................................................... 365
Hilmi Buqa and Karl-Heinz Pettinger
8E.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 365
8E.1.1 Selection of the Cell Chemistry ......................................................366
8E.2 Electrical Risk Management ........................................................................ 368
8E.3 Thermal Risk Management .......................................................................... 371
8E.4 Minimizing Integration Risks and Applications .......................................... 373
8E.4.1 Battery Control System...................................................................373
8E.4.2 Installations in Buildings.................................................................373
8E.4.3 Marine Applications ........................................................................374
8E.5 Conclusions................................................................................................... 377
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 377
References .................................................................................................... 377
CHAPTER 9 Managing of Risks by Users and Stakeholders............................... 379
Klaus Brandt and Juergen Garche
9.1 General Safety Remarks for Users and Stakeholders............................................ 379
9.2 Users and Stakeholders of Portable Devices ......................................................... 380
9.3 Users and Stakeholders of XEVs........................................................................... 381
9.4 Users and Stakeholders of BESSs ......................................................................... 382
9.4.1 BESS—Home Installations.......................................................................... 382
9.4.2 BESS—Industrial Installations .................................................................... 384
9.5 Conclusions and Outlook ....................................................................................... 385
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. 385
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... 385
CHAPTER 10 Safety Tests for Li-Secondary Batteries .......................................... 387
10A Battery Safety Testing............................................................................................ 388
Detlef Hoffmann
10A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 388
10A.2 Test Objectives........................................................................................... 390
10A.3 Test Levels ................................................................................................. 391
10A.4 Device Under Test ..................................................................................... 393
10A.4.1 Battery System ............................................................................394
10A.4.2 Cell ..............................................................................................399
10A.4.3 Module.........................................................................................404
10A.5 Simulation of External Influences ............................................................. 407
10A.5.1 External Electrical Influences.....................................................407
10A.5.2 Mechanical Tests.........................................................................409
10A.5.3 Thermal .......................................................................................410
10A.5.4 Low Pressure Test.......................................................................411
10A.5.5 Accidents .....................................................................................411
10A.6 Observation of Hazard Levels, Events, and Test Criteria......................... 412
10A.7 Experimental Simulation of Internal States Which Impact
to Safety ..................................................................................................... 419
10A.7.1 Simulation of Internal Short Circuits (ICS) ...............................419
10A.8 Safety Requirements and Tests in Standards and Regulations ................. 422
10A.9 Outlook....................................................................................................... 425
Acknowledgment ......................................................................................... 426
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 426
References .................................................................................................... 427
Further Reading ........................................................................................... 427
10B Modeling Safety Tests/Events ............................................................................... 428
Martin Petit, Guy Marlair, Sara Abada and Cao-Yang Wang
10B.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 428
10B.2 Battery Electrochemical-Thermal Modeling ............................................. 428
10B.2.1 Nominal Conditions Electrothermal Modeling...........................430
10B.2.2 Thermal Runaway Modeling.......................................................438
10B.3 Safety Tests Modeling................................................................................ 443
10B.3.1 Triggering Events ........................................................................443
10B.3.2 Battery Parameters Determination ..............................................445
10B.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 450
Nomenclature ............................................................................................. 451
Roman Letters ........................................................................................451
Greek Letters ..........................................................................................451
Subscripts and Superscripts....................................................................452
Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 452
References .................................................................................................. 452
CHAPTER 11 Li-Secondary Battery: Special Risks................................................ 455
11A A Specific Risks During Transport and Storage ................................................... 456
George A. Kerchner and Juergen Garche
11A.1 Transport .................................................................................................... 456
11A.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................456
11A.1.2 Dangerous Goods ........................................................................458
11A.1.3 UN Lithium Battery Testing Requirements ...............................460
11A.1.4 Safe Shipping of Lithium Batteries ............................................461
11A.1.5 Approvals for Special Shipping of Lithium Batteries................467
11A.1.6 Lithium Batteries Permitted for Passengers in Aircraft .............468
11A.2 Storage (Written Only by J. Garche)......................................................... 469
Abbreviations.............................................................................................. 470
References .................................................................................................. 471
11B Specific Risks of Lithium Batteries at End of Life............................................... 472
Jean-Pol Wiaux
11B.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 472
11B.1.1 The Nature of Incidents ..............................................................474
11B.1.2 The Approach ..............................................................................476
11B.1.3 Battery Aging ..............................................................................477
11B.2 Legislative and Regulatory Framework..................................................... 477
11B.2.1 The EU Waste Framework Directive and the Daughter
Directives on Waste ....................................................................478
11B.2.2 The Waste Framework Directive ................................................478
11B.2.3 The End of Life Vehicle Directive .............................................479
11B.2.4 The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive .......479
11B.2.5 The Batteries Directive ...............................................................479
11B.2.6 The Basel Convention .................................................................480
11B.2.7 The International Transport Regulation......................................481
11B.2.8 Note to the Reader: Hazardous Waste and Dangerous Goods...481
11B.3 Transport of Lithium Batteries for Disposal or Recycling ....................... 481
11B.3.1 Special Provisions SP377 and SP636 (B) (ADR)
for Lithium Batteries Transported for Disposal
or Recycling ................................................................................482
11B.3.2 Special Provision SP376 for the Transport of Damaged
and Defective Lithium Batteries .................................................484
11B.4 Communication Tools as Preventive Measures......................................... 486
11B.4.1 The Prevention and Response to Incidents.................................486
11B.4.2 Results of Tests ...........................................................................487
11B.4.3 Recalled Batteries........................................................................487
11B.4.4 Recommendations for the Safe Storage of Waste Lithium
Batteries .......................................................................................488
11B.4.5 Fire Fighting First Responders....................................................488
11B.4.6 Waste Batteries Collection Organization....................................488
11B.4.7 The Traffic Light Approach........................................................489
11B.5 Electrical Hazard Control: Technical Solutions ........................................ 490
11B.5.1 Electrical Hazard .........................................................................491
11B.5.2 Deactivation.................................................................................492
11B.5.3 Un Transport Regulation.............................................................493
11B.5.4 Use of Cushioning Material in Packaging and Storage .............493
11B.5.5 Wet Deactivation Via "Immersion"............................................494
11B.5.6 The Redox Shuttle Approach......................................................495
11B.5.7 Deactivation Through a Controlled Load...................................495
11B.5.8 Other Means to Deactivate a Battery..........................................495
11B.6 Reuse and Second Use ............................................................................... 496
11B.6.1 Definitions ...................................................................................498
11B.6.2 The Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) ...........................499
11B.6.3 EPR and Directives on New Products ........................................499
11B.6.4 EPR and Waste Directives ..........................................................500
11B.7 Conclusions ................................................................................................ 501
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................... 502
Abbreviations.............................................................................................. 503
References .................................................................................................. 503
CHAPTER 12 Li-Secondary Battery: Damage Control ............................................ 507
12A Handling of Safety Incidents ................................................................................. 510
Jens Tubke and Karsten Pinkwart
12A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 510
12A.2 General Risk From Lithium-Ion Batteries................................................. 511
12A.3 Handling of Safety Incidents ..................................................................... 511
12A.3.1 Incidents With Portable Applications.........................................511
12A.3.2 Incidents in Stationary Storage Devices.....................................513
12A.3.3 Incidents With Electric Vehicles ................................................515
12A.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 522
Abbreviations and Symbols ....................................................................... 522
References .................................................................................................. 522
12B Procedures for Incident Investigations .................................................................. 524
Christopher E. Hendricks and Daphne A. Fuentevilla
12B.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 524
12B.2 Failure Investigation Scope........................................................................ 527
12B.2.1 External to Battery ......................................................................528
12B.2.2 Internal to Battery .......................................................................529
12B.2.3 Cell...............................................................................................529
12B.2.4 Additional Considerations...........................................................529
12B.3 Clean-Up/Evidence Collection................................................................... 530
12B.3.1 Contact Stakeholders and Establish Roles..................................530
12B.3.2 Documenting the Scene...............................................................531
12B.3.3 Preserving Related Documents ...................................................531
12B.3.4 Forensics Data Package...............................................................532
12B.4 Postevent Forensics .................................................................................... 533
12B.4.1 Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques ......................................533
12B.4.2 Destructive Evaluation Techniques ............................................533
12B.5 Data Analysis and Investigation Conclusion............................................. 534
12B.6 The Future of Battery Incident Investigation ............................................ 534
12B.7 Summary..................................................................................................... 535
Abbreviations and Symbols ....................................................................... 535
References .................................................................................................. 535
Further Reading .......................................................................................... 536
12C Ignition and Extinction of Battery Fires................................................................ 537
Harry Doering, Juergen Garche and Verena Liebau
12C.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 537
12C.2 Combustible Materials and Their Reaction Products................................ 538
12C.2.1 Electrolyte....................................................................................539
12C.2.2 Cathode Materials .......................................................................541
12C.2.3 Anode Material............................................................................543
12C.3 Processes Leading to Fire .......................................................................... 544
12C.3.1 Cell Temperature.........................................................................544
12C.3.2 Critical Temperatures..................................................................546
12C.3.3 Autoignition Point (Kindling Point) ...........................................547
12C.3.4 Flammability Limits and Oxygen Content .................................547
12C.3.5 Time Frame to Fire .....................................................................548
12C.4 Characterization of Fire ............................................................................. 548
12C.4.1 Heat Release ................................................................................549
12C.4.2 Time Frame of Fire .....................................................................550
12C.4.3 Mass Loss ....................................................................................552
12C.4.4 Gas/Aerosol Release....................................................................552
12C.4.5 Kinetically Energized Material Release .....................................553
12C.4.6 Classifying Fire Hazards .............................................................553
12C.5 Special Fires ............................................................................................... 554
12C.5.1 Fire by Thermal Runaway ..........................................................554
12C.5.2 Fire by Electrolyte Leakage........................................................554
12C.5.3 Low Oxygen Fire ........................................................................554
12C.5.4 Fire in Closed Rooms..................................................................554
12C.5.5 Fire With Chimney Effects .........................................................555
12C.5.6 Reignited Fire ..............................................................................555
12C.5.7 Fire Under Water.........................................................................555
12C.5.8 Li Metal Battery Fire ..................................................................555
12C.5.9 Fire Class of Combustible Materials ..........................................555
12C.6 Fire Extinguishing Agents.......................................................................... 556
12C.6.1 Water-Based Fire Extinguishing Agents ....................................558
12C.6.2 Fire Extinguishing Powders ........................................................559
12C.6.3 CO2, Inert Gases..........................................................................560
12C.6.4 Special Extinguishing Agents .....................................................561
12C.7 Failure Propagation .................................................................................... 563
12C.8 Strategies for Firefighters........................................................................... 564
12C.8.1 Protection Clothing .....................................................................564
12C.8.2 Fire Identification ........................................................................565
12C.8.3 Electrical Risk .............................................................................565
12C.8.4 Fire in Open Air ..........................................................................566
12C.8.5 Fire Reignition and Water Consumption....................................566
12C.8.6 Firefighting Water Contamination ..............................................567
12C.8.7 Airplane Fire................................................................................567
Abbreviations.............................................................................................. 568
References .................................................................................................. 568
12D Overview About Accidents: Selected Lessons Learned
From Prior Safety-Related Failures of Li-Ion Batteries........................................ 571
Xuning Feng, Minggao Ouyang and Languang Lu
12D.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 571
12D.2 An Overview on the Worldwide Accidents Caused
by Li-Ion Battery........................................................................................ 571
12D.3 Selected Lessons Learned From Prior Safety Related Failures
of Li-Ion Batteries...................................................................................... 576
12D.3.1 The Li-Ion Battery Failure in Portable Electronic Devices .......576
12D.3.2 The Li-Ion Battery Failure in Electric Vehicles ........................585
12D.3.3 The Li-Ion Battery Failure in Aircraft........................................592
12D.4 Summary on the Failure of Li-Ion Batteries ............................................. 598
Acknowledgment........................................................................................ 600
Abbreviations.............................................................................................. 600
References .................................................................................................. 601
12E Legal Aspects on High-Voltage Batteries ............................................................. 603
Juergen Wilhelmy, Lars Hollmotz and Johanna Vogt
12E.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 603
12E.2 Legal Basis for Product Liability............................................................... 604
12E.2.1 Legal Basis ..................................................................................604
12E.2.2 Contract Law ...............................................................................606
12E.2.3 Tort Law ......................................................................................608
12E.2.4 Public Law: Product Safety Act (PSG)....................................... 609
12E.2.5 Criminal Law...............................................................................609
12E.3 The Legal Significance of Technical Standards ........................................ 610
12E.3.1 Difference Between Standard and Technical Legislation ..........610
12E.3.2 Term Definition "State of the Art" According to Legal
Requirements and Standards .......................................................610
12E.4 Types of Fault in the Life Cycle of High-Voltage Batteries..................... 611
12E.4.1 Developmental Errors..................................................................611
12E.4.2 Construction Errors......................................................................612
12E.4.3 Manufacturing Errors ..................................................................612
12E.4.4 Instruction Errors.........................................................................612
12E.4.5 Product Monitoring Errors ..........................................................613
12E.5 Legal Aspects Regarding ISO 26262......................................................... 613
12E.5.1 ISO 26262 in High-Voltage Battery Systems.............................613
12E.5.2 Differentiating Between Functional Safety and Other
Areas of Safety ............................................................................616
12E.6 Global Laws and Standards in E-Mobility ................................................ 617
12E.7 Safety Procedures for High-Voltage Batteries........................................... 621
12E.7.1 Technical Compliance .................................................................621
12E.7.2 The Role of the Safety Manager.................................................622
12E.7.3 Requirements of Quality Management .......................................623
12E.7.4 Production Management and Law ..............................................623
12E.7.5 Development Process of a Safe High-Voltage Battery ..............624
12E.8 Summary..................................................................................................... 627
12E.9 Outlook ....................................................................................................... 627
Abbreviations.............................................................................................. 628
References .................................................................................................. 629
Further Reading.......................................................................................... 629
- Edition: 1
- Published: September 20, 2018
- No. of pages (Hardback): 670
- Imprint: Elsevier
- Language: English
- Hardback ISBN: 9780444637772
- eBook ISBN: 9780444640086
JG
Jürgen Garche
Jürgen Garche, graduated in chemistry at the Dresden University of Technology (DTU) in Germany in 1967. He was awarded his PhD in theoretical electrochemistry in 1970 and his habilitation in applied electrochemistry in 1980 from the same university. He worked at the DTU in the Electrochemical Power Sources Group for many years in different projects, mainly related to conventional batteries, before he moved 1991 to the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) in Ulm, where he was, until 2004, the Head of the Electrochemical Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division.
He was Professor of Electrochemistry at Ulm University and Guest Professor at Shandong University – China, 2005, Sapienca University Roma - Italy, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2023, TUM-CREATE – Singapore, 2014, 2015, 2016- 2016, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics - China, 2016, CNR Institute for Advanced Energy Technologies, Messina - Italy, 2019. After he retired from the ZSW he founded in 2004 the consulting firm Fuel Cell and Battery Consulting (FCBAT). Since 2015 he is senior professor at Ulm University. He has published more than 300 papers, 10 patents, and 11 books, among others as editor-in-chief of the first edition of Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources. He is listed in “World’s most Influential Scientific Minds” by Thomas Reuters (2014) and in the book “Profiles of 93 Influential Electrochemists” (2015).
Affiliations and expertise
Senior Professor, Ulm University, Ulm, GermanyKB
Klaus Brandt
Dr. Klaus Brandt has over 35 years of experience in research, development and manufacturing of lithium and lithium ion batteries. He co-founded Moli Energy in Canada which produced the first rechargeable battery with a lithium metal anode. In the field of lithium ion batteries, he worked in various management positions for battery companies like Varta and Duracell. His last industrial position was with Clariant which produced cathode and anode active materials for lithium ion batteries.
Affiliations and expertise
Previous affiliations with Moli Energy, Varta, Duracell, and ClariantRead Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications on ScienceDirect