Descriptive Micrometeorology

ForewordPreface1· The Earth-Atmosphere Boundary 1.1. The Scope of Micrometeorology 1.2. The Energy Balance at the Earth-Atmosphere Boundary 1.3. Models in Micrometeorology 1.4. Micrometeorology and Microclimatology2. Short-Wave Radiation at the Earth's Surface 2.1. The Spectrum of Radiation 2.2. The Effect of Temperature on Radiant Energy 2.3. The Energy from the Sun at the Outer Edge of the Atmosphere 2.4. Depletion of Solar Energy by the Atmosphere 2.5. Optical Air Mass 2.6. An Illustrative Example 2.7. Reflection by the Earth's Surface QR 2.8. The Estimation and Measurement of QT and QR3. Long-Wave Radiation at the Earth's Surface 3.1. Long-Wave Radiation from the Earth's Surface QL↑ 3.2. Long-Wave Radiation from the Sky QL↓ 3.3. Radiative Flux Divergence 3.4. Measurement of Long-Wave and Net Radiation4. Soil Temperature and Moisture 4.1. Surface Temperature 4.2. Subsurface Soil Temperatures 4.3. Moisture in Bare Soil 4.4. Evapotranspiration 4.5. The Lysimeter5. Soil Heat Transfer 5.1. Heat Transfer in a Solid 5.2. The Fourier Heat Conduction Equation in One Dimension 5.3. Experimental Methods 5.4. Some Estimates of Soil Heat Flux 5.5. Soil Moisture Flux6. Air Temperature and Humidity near the Earth's Surface 6.1. Factors Influencing Air Temperatures 6.2. Diurnal and Annual Patterns of Air Temperature Differences 6.3. Precipitation and Fog 6.4. Humidity Near the Earth's Surface 6.5. The Measurement of Temperature and Mixing Ratio7. Wind Flow Over Homogeneous Surfaces 7.1. The Essential Problem 7.2. Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Theory 7.3. Viscosity and Shearing Stress 7.4. The Vertical Wind Profile in the Absence of Buoyancy 7.5. The Vertical Wind Profile in a Nonadiabatic Atmosphere 7.6. The Measurement of Mean Wind and Surface Shearing Stress8. Turbulence over Homogeneous Surfaces 8.1. The Nature of Turbulence 8.2. Some Definitions 8.3. The Problems of Normality and Intermittency in Shear Zones 8.4. The Spectrum of Turbulence 8.5. The Kolmogorov Similarity Theory 8.6. The Effect of Sampling and Smoothing Times 8.7. Correlation Coefficients and the Scale of Turbulence 8.8. Cross-Spectrum Analysis 8.9. Shearing Stress in Terms of Eddy Fluctuations 8.10. The Lagrangian Reference Frame 8.11. The Measurement of Turbulence9. Turbulent Transfer of Heat from Homogeneous Surfaces 9.1. The Assumption of Constant Vertical Heat Flux 9.2. The Monin-Obukhov Length and the Richardson Number 9.3. The Ratio of Diffusivities KH/Km 9.4. Daytime Turbulent Heat Fluxes 9.5. Nighttime Turbulent Heat Fluxes 9.6. Viscous Dissipation and the Diabatic Wind Profile 9.7. The Eddy Correlation Method for Measuring Heat Flux 9.8. The Effect of Radiative Flux Divergence on Heat Transfer10. Evaporation from Homogeneous Surfaces 10.1. The Evaporation Process 10.2. Some Formal Relations 10.3. The Ratio of Diffusivities 10.4. Some Recent Experimental Data 10.5. The Eddy Correlation Method for Measuring Evaporation 10.6. Some Practical Considerations 10.7. Measurement of Temperature and Water Vapor Fluctuations11. Wind Flow Around Obstacles 11.1. The Surface of the Earth 11.2. Wind Flow Around a Cylinder 11.3. Wind Flow around Irregular Objects 11.4. The Energy Balance of an Enclosed Area 11.5. The Effect of a Tower on Wind Measurements12. Transitional Zones and States 12.1. Introduction 12.2. The Fetch Required to Achieve Steady State Conditions Downwind from an Obstacle 12.3. The Effect of a Discrete Change in Roughness 12.4. Advection 12.5. Transitional States13. Atmospheric Pollution 13.1. The Meteorological Problem 13.2. A Diffusion Model from Probability Theory 13.3. Taylor's Theorem 13.4. The Pasquill Diffusion Model 13.5. The Effect of a Lapse Rate on Plume Behavior 13.6. Effective Stack Height 13.7. Aerodynamic Downwash around a Building 13.8. Transitional Zones and States14. The Air Over Bare Ground 14.1. Models and Reality 14.2. The Energy Balance of a Dry Surface 14.3. The Energy Balance of Moist Ground 14.4. The Effect of Fences and Hedges15. The Air Over Snow and Ice Surfaces 15.1. Introduction 15.2. The Radiation Balance of Snow and Ice Surfaces 15.3. Heat Flux and Heat Storage within Snow and Ice 15.4. Wind Profiles over Snow and Ice 15.5. Temperature Profiles and Vertical Heat Transfer 15.6. Humidity Profiles and Latent Heat Transfer16. The Energy Balance of a Plant Cover 16.1. The Air Over a Short Grass Surface 16.2. The Energy Balance of a Leaf 16.3. The Radiation Balance of a Plant Cover 16.4. Profiles within a Plant Cover 16.5. Profiles Above Plant Covers 16.6. The Energy Balance within a Plant Cover 16.7. An Alternative Notation for Fluxes 16.8. Carbon Dioxide Profiles and Fluxes17. Forest Meteorology 17.1. The Forest: An Active Meteorological Region 17.2. The Radiation Balance of a Forest 17.3. Soil Temperature and Moisture 17.4. Forest Temperatures 17.5. Winds in the Forest 17.6. Humidity in the Forest 17.7. Heat Storage within Trees 17.8. The Energy Balance of a Forest 17.9. Additional Remarks18. The Air Over Oceans and Large Lakes 18.1. Introduction 18.2. Some Physical Properties of Oceans and Lakes 18.3. The Radiation Balance of Oceans and Lakes 18.4. Temperature and Humidity Near the Water Surface 18.5. Wind Flow Over Water 18.6. Heat Storage and Horizontal Advection in Water 18.7. Energy Balance Calculations of a Lake or Ocean 18.8. Turbulence Over Water19. Land and Sea Breezes 19.1. Introduction 19.2. Land and Sea Breezes During Light Geostrophic Winds 19.3. Sea Breezes When a Geostrophic Wind Is Blowing 19.4. A Mathematical Model of the Sea Breeze 19.5. Humidity Profiles Associated with Sea Breezes 19.6. The Micrometeorology of Small Islands and Lakes20. The Air in Valleys 20.1. The Importance of Valley Meteorology 20.2. Valley Influences During Strong Geostrophic Winds 20.3. The Radiation Balance in Hilly Country 20.4. Local Wind Flows in Valleys During Light Geostrophic Winds 20.5. Temperatures and Pollution in Valleys21. The Air Over a City 21.1. Introduction 21.2. The Radiation Balance of a City 21.3. Conductive Heat Flux QG 21.4. The Heat Generated by a City 21.5. City Temperatures 21.6. The Humidity in a City 21.7. Winds in a City 21.8. The Effect of Parks and Greenbelts 21.9. Conclusion22. The Modification of Local Weather 22.1. Introduction 22.2. Changes in the Radiation Balance 22.3. Changes in Soil Heat Flux QG 22.4. Changes in Humidity 22.5. Changes in Wind Patterns 22.6. Other Examples of Micrometeorological Weather ModificationList of SymbolsReferencesAuthor IndexSubject Index