Chemistry

Preface to Chemistry with Inorganic Qualitative AnalysisPreface to Chemistry1 Chemistry: The Science of Matter Science and matter 1.1 Science 1.2 States and Properties of Matter 1.3 Kinds of Matter Chemistry: The Science of Matter 1.4 Chemistry 1.5 Subdivisions of chemistry Units of Measure; Problem Solving 1.6 Systems of Measurement 1.7 Length 1.8 Volume 1.9 Mass vs. Weight 1.10 Heat 1.11 Temperature 1.12 The factor-Dimensional Method of Calculation Chemistry and the future Thoughts on Chemistry: Spaceship Earth2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Chemistry: Where to Begin? 2.1 What is An Atom? An Aside: Toward the Atomic Theory through History 2.2 Atoms and Mass in Chemical Combination 2.3 The Symbols for the Elements 2.4 Molecules and Ions 2.5 Formulas for Chemical Compounds An Aside: The Names of the Elements3 The Gaseous State The Nature of Gases 3.1 General Properties of Gases An Aside: Priestly, Lavoisier, and the Phlogiston Theory 3.2 Units of Pressure 3.3 Measuring Pressure 3.4 Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases 3.5 Ideal vs. Real Gases Volume, Pressure, and Temperature Relationships 3.6 Volume vs. Pressure: Boyle's Law 3.7 Volume vs. Temperature: Charles' Law 3.8 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) 3.9 P, V, and T Changes in a Fixed Amount of Gas Mass, Molecular, and Molar Relationships 3.10 Combining Volumes of Gases: Gay-Lussac's Law 3.11 Equal Volumes of Gases: Avogadro's Law 3.12 Molar Volume 3.13 Ideal Gas Law 3.14 Weight, Density, and Molecular Weight Relationships 3.15 Pressure in Gas Mixtures: Dalton's Law 3.16 Effusion and Diffusion: Graham's Laws Nonideal gases 3.17 Deviations from the Gas Laws Thoughts on Chemistry: On the Constitution of Bodies4 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions in Action: Stoichiometry Reactions and Equations 4.1 Chemical Equations 4.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 4.3 Reaction Conditions 4.4 Ionic Reactions and Ionic Equations 4.5 Information from Chemical Equations: Stoichiometry Important Types of Reactions 4.6 Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium 4.7 Water, A Slightly Ionized Liquid 4.8 Acids and Bases: H+ and OH- 4.9 Neutralization 4.10 Equivalent Weight and Normality for Acids and Bases 4.11 Oxidation State 4.12 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Thoughts on Chemistry: Stoichiometry5 Thermochemistry Heat 5.1 Heat and Heat Capacity and Changes of State 5.2 Heat in Chemical Reactions Enthalpy 5.3 Enthalpy Defined 5.4 Standard Enthalpies Tools of Chemistry: The Calorimeter 5.5 Using Enthalpies 5.6 Hess' Law 5.7 ΔH°r from ΔH°f 5.8 Other Useful Enthalpies Thoughts on Chemistry: Early Observations on Changes of State6 The Atmosphere The Atmosphere and the Air 6.1 Functions of the Atmosphere 6.2 Pressure of the Atmosphere 6.3 Composition of the Air 6.4 Liquefaction and Distillation of Air 6.5 Regions of the Atmosphere Air Pollution 6.6 Pollutants and their Sources 6.7 Carbon Monoxide 6.8 Hydrocarbons 6.9 Nitrogen Oxides 6.10 Sulfur Oxides 6.11 Particulates The Noble Gases 6.12 Discovery of the Noble Gases 6.13 Properties of the Noble Gases 6.14 Preparation and Uses of the Noble Gases Thoughts on Chemistry: The Laws of Ecology7 Atomic Structure Particles 7.2 Electricity and Matter 7.3 Electrons 7.4 Protons 7.5 α-Particles 7.6 Neutrons The Nucleus and Nuclear Arithmetic 7.7 Rutherford's Atomic Model: The Nuclear Atom 7.8 Atomic Numbers and X-ray Spectra Tools of Chemistry: Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectra 7.9 The Nucleus: Mass Number and Atomic Number 7.10 Isotopes and Atomic Weight Tools of Chemistry: Mass Spectrometer Quantum Theory and the Atom 7.11 The Role of the Electron 7.12 Waves as Particles—Particles as Waves: Quantum Theory 7.13 Atomic Spectra 7.14 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 7.15 Wave-Mechanical Model of the Atom 7.16 Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 7.17 Picturing Orbitals Electrons and the Periodic Table 7.18 Electronic Configurations 7.19 The Modern Periodic Table Thoughts on Chemistry: Quantum Behavior8 Nuclear Chemistry Nuclear Stability and Instability 8.1 The Nucleus 8.2 Nuclear Binding Energy 8.3 Radioactivity 8.4 Isotopes 8.5 Neutron-proton Ratio 8.6 Half-life 8.7 Cosmic Abundance and Nuclear Stability Nuclear Reactions 8.8 Writing Equations for Nuclear Reactions 8.9 γ Decay 8.10 α Decay 8.11 ß Decay 8.12 Radiation and Matter 8.13 Natural Radioactive Series An Aside: Uses of Radioisotopes 8.14 Bombardment 8.15 Nuclear Fission An Aside: The Atomic Bomb 8.16 Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Energy 8.17 Light Water Reactors An Aside: Nature's Nuclear Reactor 8.18 Breeder Reactors 8.19 Fusion Reactors Thoughts on Chemistry: The Atomic Age Begins9 The Chemical Bond Some Definitions 9.1 Definition of the Chemical Bond 9.2 Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols 9.3 Noble Gases and the Stable Octet 9.4 Types of Chemical Bonds An Aside: Noble Gas Compounds The Metallic Bond 9.5 Configuration and Bonding in Metals Imparted by the Metallic Bond 9.6 Properties The Ionic Bond 9.7 Configurations of Ions 9.8 Properties Imparted by the Ionic Bond The Covalent Bond 9.9 Configuration in Covalent Bonding 9.10 Multiple Covalent Bonds 9.11 Coordinate Covalent Bonds 9.12 Unpaired Electrons 9.13 Resonance 9.14 Polyatomic Ions 9.15 Writing Lewis Formulas for Covalent Species 9.16 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity 9.17 Dipole Moment 9.18 Properties Imparted by the Covalent Bond 9.19 Network Covalent Substances Intermolecular Forces 9.20 Dipole-dipole Forces 9.22 London Force 9.21 Hydrogen Bond Properties of Bonds 9.23 The Continua of Bond Types 9.24 Bond Strength and Bond Length 9.25 Atomic and Ionic Radii 9.26 Molecular Geometry: Valence-shell Electron-pair Repulsion Theory Thoughts on Chemistry: Chemical Bond Definitions10 Periodic Perspective: The Representative Elements Types of Representative Elements 10.1 Nonmetals 10.2 Metals 10.3 Semiconducting Elements Properties of Atoms and Ions 10.4 Atomic and Ionic Radii 10.5 Ionization Energies 10.6 Electron Affinities 10.7 Electronegativity 10.8 Electronegativity and Oxidation State Compound Formation 10.9 Energy Relationships Group Trends 10.10 Hydrogen 10.11 Representative Group I (the alkali metals) 10.12 Representative Group II (the alkaline earth metals) 10.13 Representative Group III 10.14 Representative Group IV 10.15 Representative Group V 10.16 Representative Group VI 10.17 Representative Group VII (the halogens) Thoughts on Chemistry: The Grim Silence of Facts11 Hydrogen and Oxygen 11.1 Origin and Abundance of Hydrogen and Oxygen Hydrogen 11.2 Properties of Hydrogen 11.3 Isotopes of Hydrogen 11.4 Reactions of Hydrogen 11.5 Electromotive Series 11.6 Preparation and Uses of Hydrogen 11.7 Hydrogen as a Fuel 11.8 Binary Compounds of Hydrogen Oxygen 11.9 Properties of Oxygen 11.10 Reactions of oxygen 11.11 Preparation and uses of Oxygen 11.12 Ozone 11.13 Binary Compounds of Oxygen 11.14 Hydrogen Peroxide 11.15 The Oxygen and Carbon Cycles Thougths on Chemistry: The World's Biggest Membrane12 The Liquid and Solid States; Changes of State Relationships Between Phases 12.1 Phases 12.2 Kinetic-molecular Theory for Liquid and Solids 12.3 Vaporization 12.4 Boiling point and Melting Point 12.5 Changes of State 12.6 Phase Diagrams The Liquid State 12.7 Structure, Density, and Volume 12.8 Surface Tension An Aside: Liquid Crystals 12.9 Viscosity 12.10 Index of Refraction The Solid State 12.11 Types of Solids 12.12 Crystal Structure of Metals 12.13 Crystal Systems 12.14 Ionic Crystal Structure Tools of Chemistry: Diffraction: X rays, Neutrons, and Electrons 12.15 Alloys 12.16 Defects 12.17 Solid-State Reaction Thoughts on Chemistry: The Dance of the Solids13 water and The Hydrosphere The Chemistry of Water 13.1 The Water Molecule and its Aggregates 13.2 Water as a Solvent 13.3 Properties of Water 13.4 Reactions of Water 13.5 Hydrates The Hydrosphere 13.6 The Water Cycle 13.7 Natural Water 13.8 Nature's Water Treatment System Water Pollution 13.9 Types of Pollutants 13.10 Oxygen-Demanding Pollutants 13.11 Toxic or Harmful Pollutants 13.12 The Soap and Detergent Opera Water Purification 13.13 Hard water 13.15 Desalination 13.14 Sewage Treatment Thoughts on Chemistry: Second-hand Molecules14 solutions and Colloids Types of Solutions 14.1 Some Definitions 14.2 Gas-gas Solutions 14.3 Gas-liquid Solutions 14.4 Gas-solid Solutions 14.5 Solid-solid Solutions 14.6 Liquid-liquid Solutions 14.7 Solid-liquid Solutions 14.8 Is Solubility a Physical or a Chemical Phenomenon? 14.9 Solutions of Electrolytes 14.10 Ideal vs. Nonideal solutions Concentration of Solutions 14.11 Standard Solutions: Mole fraction 14.12 Standard Solutions: Molality 14.13 Preparation of Solutions 14.14 Summary of Concentration Units Vapor Pressures of Liquid Solutions and Related Properties 14.15 Liquid-liquid Solution Vapor Pressures: Raoult's Law Tools of Chemistry: Distillation 14.16 Vapor pressure Lowering by Nonvolatile Solutes 14.17 Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression 14.18 Molecular Weight Determination 14.19 Osmotic Pressure 14.20 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions Colloids 14.21 Properties of Colloids 14.22 Types of Colloids Thoughts on Chemistry: To Tell a Chemist15 Chemical Kinetics How Reactions Take Place 15.1 Collision Theory 15.2 Activation Energy 15.3 Transition State Theory Reaction Rates and Factors that Influence them 15.4 Reaction Rates 15.5 Concentration 15.6 Temperature 15.7 Contact between Reacting Substances 15.8 Catalysis Mechanisms and Rate Equations 15.9 Rate Equations 15.10 Reaction Order, Molecularity, and Elementary Reactions 15.11 First-order Reactions 15.12 Second-order Reactions 15.13 Kinetics and Mechanism Thpughts on Chemistry: A classical View of Kinetics and Thermodynamics16 Chemical Equilibrium The Law of Chemical Equilibrium 16.1 Reversibility and Equilibrium 16.2 Units and Equilibrium Constant Values 16.3 Homogeneous, Heterogeneous, and Solution Equilibria 16.4 The Reaction Quotient 16.5 Equilibrium Constants and Reaction Equations 16.6 Are Equilibria Established in All Reactions? Factors that Influence Equilibria 16.7 Le Chatelier's Principle 16.8 Temperature 16.9 Concentration Tools of Chemistry: Chromatography 16.10 Pressure An Aside: The Haber Process for the Manufacture of Ammonia Equilibrium Problems 16.11 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 16.12 Some Equilibrium Problem Solutions Thoughts on Chemistry: Professor Thomas Cooper's View of Chemistry in 181117 Acids and Bases Ways of Defining Acids and Bases 17.1 The Unique Properties of the Proton 17.2 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 17.3 Factors Affecting the Strength of Acids and Bases 17.4 Lewis Acids and Bases Expressing the Strength of Acids, Bases, and their Aqueous Solutions 17.5 Ionization Equilibrium of Water 17.6 pH and pK 17.7 Determination of pH: Indicators 17.8 Strong and Weak Acids 17.9 Strong and Weak Bases 17.10 Relationship of Ka and Kb to Kw Thoughts on Chemistry: Ira Remsen Investigates Nitric Acid18 Ions and Ionic Equilibria Acid-base Equilibria 18.1 Ions in Aqueous Solution 18.2 Reactions of Ions with Water 18.3 The Behavior of Salts toward Water 18.4 Equilibrium Constants for the Reactions of Ions with Water 18.5 pH of Salt Solutions 18.6 Reactions of Acids with Bases 18.7 Polyprotic Acids 18.8 The Common Ion Effect 18.9 Buffer Solutions 18.10 Titrations of Acids and Bases 18.11 Titration CurvesHeterogeneous equilibria 18.12 Solubility Product, Ksp 18.13 Ksp and Solubility 18.14 Ksp and Precipitation 18.15 Ksp and the Dissolution of Ionic Precipitates Thoughts on Chemistry: Scientific Method19 Oxidation and Reduction Defining Oxidation and Reduction 19.1 What Happens in Redox Reactions? 19.2 Relationship between Electrochemistry and Redox Reactions The Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions 19.3 Half-Reactions 19.4 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 19.5 An Electrochemical Cell 19.6 Standard Reduction Potentials 19.7 Using Standard Reduction Potentials 19.8 Variation of Potential with Concentration 19.9 Redox Equilibria: Finding K from E° Thoughts on Chemistry: The Chemical History of a Candle20 Nonmetals: The Halogens The Halogens 20.1 Properties of the Halogens 20.2 Reactions of the Halogens 20.3 Sources of the Halogens 20.4 Preparation and Uses of the Halogens An Aside: Industrial vs. Laboratory Preparations 20.5 Halogens and the Water Supply Compounds of the Halogens 20.6 Metal Halides 20.7 Interhalogens 20.8 Hydrogen Halides and their Aqueous Solutions 20.9 Oxoacids and the Halogens and their Salts Thoughts on Chemistry: Salt and Civilization21 The Covalent Bond Reexamined 21.1 Bond Formation Atomic Orbital Overlap: Valence Bond Theory 21.2 Single Bonds in Diatomic Molecules 21.3 π Bonds 21.4 Single Bonds in Polyatomic Molecules; Hybridization 21.5 Multiple Covalent Bonds 21.6 Valence Bonds vs. Molecular Orbital Theory Molecular Orbital Theory 21.7 Molecular Orbitals in H2 and "He2" 21.8 Rules for filling Molecular Orbitals 21.9 Bond Order An Aside: Electron Density Diagrams 21.1077 Molecular Orbitals 21.11 Molecular Orbitals for Diatomic Molecules of Second-Period Elements, Li-Ne 21.12 Multiple Bonds; Delocalized Bonds 21.13 Molecular Orbitals in Metals Thoughts on Chemistry: The Centrality of Chemistry22 Nonmetals: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur & Inorganic Qualitative Analysis: Anions Nonmetals: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur 22.1 Some Properties of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur Nitrogen 22.2 Additional Properties of Nitrogen 22.3 Sources, Preparation, and Uses of Nitrogen 22.4 Oxidation State -3: Nitrides and Ammonia 22.5 Oxidation State -2: Hydrazine 22.6 Oxidation States +1 to +5: Oxides of Nitrogen 22.7 Oxidation State +3: Nitrous Acid and Nitrites 22.8 Oxidation State +5: Nitric Acid and Nitrates Phosphorus 22.9 Additional Properties of Phosphorus 22.10 Sources, Preparation, and Uses of Phosphorus 22.11 Oxidation State -3: Phosphides, Phosphine, and Phosphonium Salts 22.12 Oxidation State +3: Trihalides, Oxide, and Phosphorous Acid 22.13 Oxidation State +5: Halides, Oxide, and Phosphoric Acids An Aside: Chemical Fertilizers Sulfur 22.14 Additional Properties of Sulfur 22.15 Sources, Preparation, and Uses of Sulfur 22.16 Oxidation State -2: Sulfides 22.17 Oxidation State +4: Sulfur Dioxide and Related Compounds 22.18 Oxidation State +6: Sulfuric Acid and Related Compounds The Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur Cycles Inorganic Qualitative Analysis Anions 22.19 An Overview of Inorganic Qualitative Analysis 22.20 Anion Analysis 22.21 Properties of the Anions 22.22 The Preliminary Tests 22.23 The Specific Tests Thoughts on Chemistry: Frasch Describes his First Success23 Nonmetals Carbon and Hydrocarbons Carbon and its Inorganic Compounds 23.1 Properties of Carbon 23.2 Diamond, Graphite, and Other Forms of Carbon; their Uses 23.3 Inorganic Compounds of Carbon Hydrocarbons 23.4 Saturated Hydrocarbons 23.5 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Tools of Chemistry: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 23.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 23.7 Isomerism 23.8 Properties and Reactions of Hydrocarbons 23.9 Sources and Uses of Carbon and Hydrocarbons Thoughts on Chemistry: The Chemical History of a Candle24 Electrochemistry Fundamentals of Electrochemistry 24.1 Anodes, Cathodes, and Cells 24.2 Electrode Reactions 24.3 Simple Voltaic Cells; Standard Cell Voltage 24.4 Chemical and Electrical Equivalence Tools of Chemistry: pH Meter Practical Electrochemistry 24.5 Voltaic Dry Cells 24.6 Storage Cells 24.7 Fuel Cells 24.8 Electrolysis Thoughts on Chemistry: Volta Describes his Discoveries25 Chemical Thermodynamics Entropy, S 25.1 Entropy: A Quantitative Measurement of Randomness 25.2 Absolute Entropy of a Substance 25.3 Entropy as a Driving Force Free Energy, G 25.4 Free Energy as the Criterion for Spontaneity 25.5 Conditions Other than Standard State 25.6 Relationship of K to ΔG° 25.7 ΔG° and E° 777 Temperature Dependence of Thermodynamic Properties 25.8 ΔH° ΔG°, and K 25.9 Phase Equilibria 25.10 Reaction Rates Application of Chemical Thermodynamics 25.11 A Biochemical Example Thoughts on Chemistry: From the Preface to a Classic Book on Thermodynamics26 The Representative Metals Representative Groups I and II: The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals 26.1 Properties of Group I and II Metals 26.2 Sources of Group I and II Elements 26.3 Preparation and uses of Group I and Group II Metals 26.4 Reactions of Group I and Group II Metals 26.5 Cations of Group I and Group II Metals 26.6 Compounds of Group I and Group II Metals The production of Metals 26.7 Metallurgy The Zinc Family: Zn, Cd, Hg 26.8 Properties of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 26.9 Sources, Metallurgy, and Uses of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 26.10 Reactions of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 26.11 Compounds of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury Representative Group III Metals: Al, Ga, In, Tl 26.12 Properties of Group III Metals 26.13 Sources, Preparation, and Uses of Group III Metals 26.14 Reactions of Aluminum 26.15 Compounds of Aluminum Representative Group IV and V metals: Sn, Pb, Bi 26.16 Properties of Tin, Lead, and Bismuth 26.17 Sources of Tin, Lead, and Bismuth 26.18 Metallurgy and Uses of Tin, Lead, and Bismuth 26.19 Reactions of Tin, Lead, and Bismuth An Aside: Metals as Poisons 26.20 Compounds of Tin, Lead, and Bismuth Thoughts on Chemistry: Of Things Metallic—1556 A.D.27 Semiconducting Elements The Seven Semiconducting Elements 27.1 General Properties 27.2 Boron 27.3 Silicon and Germanium 27.4 Arsenic and Antimony 27.5 Selenium and Tellurium Semiconductivity 27.6 Bonding and Semiconductivity 27.7 Purification of Silicon and Germanium 27.8 Semiconductor Devices Compounds of the Semiconducting Elements 27.9 Compounds of Boron 27.10 Compounds of Silicon and Germanium 27.11 Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony 27.12 Compounds of Selenium and Tellurium Silicon-Oxygen Compounds 27.13 Natural Silica 27.14 Natural Silicates 27.15 Man-made Silicate Materials 27.16 Silicones Thoughts on Chemistry: Buck Rogers: An Autobiography28 The Chemistry of Complexes Structure, Nomenclature, and Properties of Complexes 28.1 Some Definitions 28.2 Nomenclature 28.3 Chelation 28.4 Molecular Geometry and Isomerism 28.5 Formation and Properties of ComplexesBonding in complexes 28.6 Valence Bond Theory 28.7 Crystal Field Theory 28.8 Molecular Orbital Theory 28.9 Dissociation Constants, Kd 28.10 Using Κd Complexes in Nature and in Practical Applications Thoughts on Chemistry: Some Coordination Compounds in Biochemistry29 Transition Elements Periodic Perspective: d Transition Elements 29.1 Members and Configurations 29.2 Characteristic Transition Metal Properties 29.3 Atomic and Ionic Radii 29.4 Ionization Energies and Standard Reduction Potentials 29.5 Oxidation States and Compound Formation 29.6 3d Series Elements 29.7 4d and 5d Transition Series Elements Chromium 29.8 Sources, Metallurgy, and Uses of Chromium 29.9 Compounds of Chromium 29.10 Oxidation and Reduction of Chromium Manganese 29.11 Sources, Metallurgy, and Uses of Manganese 29.12 Compounds of Manganese 29.13 Oxidation and Reduction of Manganese Iron 29.14 Sources and Use of Iron 29.15 Corrosion of Iron 29.16 Iron Making: The Blast Furnace 29.17 Steel Making 29.18 Heat Treatment of Steel 29.19 Compounds of Iron Cobalt 29.20 Sources and Uses of Cobalt 29.21 Compounds of Cobalt Nickel 29.22 Sources and Uses of Nickel 29.23 Compounds of Nickel Copper, Silver, and Gold 29.24 Properties and Uses of Copper, Silver, and Gold 29.25 Sources and Metallurgy of Copper, Silver, and Gold 29.26 Compounds of Copper 29.27 Compounds of Silver 29.28 Compounds of Gold An Aside: The Photographic Process Periodic Perspective: f Transition Elements 29.29 Members and Electronic Configurations 29.30 Properties of f Transition Elements An Aside: Superheavy Elements 29.31 The Lanthanides and Their Compounds Thoughts on Chemistry: Energy: The Key to Natural Resource Abundance30 Qualitative Analysis for Cations I. Chemical Principles Reviewed Cations in Aqueous Solution 30.1 Cations for Analysis 30.2 Net Ionic Equations 30.3 Chemical Equilibrium—The Basis for Qualitative Analysis Acid-Base Equilibria 30.4 Strengths of Acids and Bases 30.5 Effect of an Added Common Ion 30.6 Buffer Solutions 30.7 Amphoterism Redox Equilibria Complexation Equilibria Heterogeneous Equilibria 30.8 The Solubility Product Constant 30.9 Concentrations of Ions Necessary for Precipitation 30.10 Controlled Precipitation 30.11 Dissolution of Solids Thoughts of Chemistry: Le Chatelier's Principle31 Qualitative Analysis for Cations II. The Cations and The Scheme Flow Charts and the Group Separations Cation Group I (Hg22+, Pb2+, Ag+) 31.1 Mercury(I) Ion 31.2 Lead(II) Ion 31.3 Silver(I) Ion 31.4 Cation Group I Analysis Cation Group II (Hg2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Sn2+ or Sn4+, Sb3+ or SbO+) 31.5 Mercury(II) Ion 31.6 Lead(II) Ion 31.7 Copper(II) Ion 31.8 Tin(II) Ion and Tin(IV) Ions 31.9 Antimony(III) Ion 31.10 Cation Group II Analysis Cation Group III (Zn2+, Mn2+, Fe2+ or Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, Al3+, Cr3+) 31.11 Zinc(II) Ion 31.12 Aluminum(III) Ion 31.13 Chromium(III) Ion 31.14 Manganese(II) Ion 31.15 Iron(II) Ion and Iron(III) Ions 31.16 Cobalt(II) Ion 31.17 Nickel(II) Ion 31.18 Cation Group III Analysis Cation Group IV (Ca2+, Ba2+) 31.19 Calcium(II) and Barium(II) Ions 31.20 Cation Group IV Analysis Cation Group V (Mg2+, Na+, K+ NH4+) 31.21 Magnesium(II) Ion 31.22 Sodium and Potassium Ions 31.23 Ammonium Ion 31.24 Cation Group V Analysis Thoughts on Chemistry: The Epigrams of Remigius Fresenius32 Organic Chemistry: Functional Groups and the Molecules of Biochemistry Functional Groups with Covalent Single Bonds 32.1 Functional Groups 32.2 Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons 32.3 Alcohols 32.4 Phenols 32.5 Ethers 32.6 Amines Functional Groups with Covalent Double Bonds 32.7 Aldehyde