Brucellosis
The Silent Threat to Livestock and Human Health
- 1st Edition - October 29, 2025
- Latest edition
- Editor: Maryam Dadar
- Language: English
Brucellosis: The Silent Threat to Livestock and Human Health offers an in-depth look into the challenges posed by brucellosis, including its prevention, control, diagnosis, and tr… Read more
Brucellosis: The Silent Threat to Livestock and Human Health offers an in-depth look into the challenges posed by brucellosis, including its prevention, control, diagnosis, and treatment in animals and humans. This zoonotic disease is a significant concern not only for animal health but also public health, creating an economic burden worldwide. As the first comprehensive reference on brucellosis in decades, this book provides valuable insights into combating and managing the disease in herds and communities. The book emphasizes the importance of the One Health approach, presenting a global perspective on brucellosis.
In addition, it discusses the contagious nature of the disease and its impact on livestock and humans, particularly those working in animal husbandry. The book serves as a foundation for new research, highlighting the need for further studies due to the lack of a cure for animals and the difficulties in treating humans.
In addition, it discusses the contagious nature of the disease and its impact on livestock and humans, particularly those working in animal husbandry. The book serves as a foundation for new research, highlighting the need for further studies due to the lack of a cure for animals and the difficulties in treating humans.
- Reviews Brucellosis in cattle, goats, sheep, swine, and humans
- Covers prevention, control, clinical presentation, and treatment
- Presents diagnostic tools and techniques
- Identifies zoonotic transmission, epidemiology, and global distribution
- Includes case studies of outbreaks in both livestock and human populations
- Explores Brucellosis in food safety and processing
Veterinarians and Animal Health Professionals working in agriculture, livestock farming, and veterinary medicine - Researchers and Scientists in the fields of livestock science, food safety, epidemiology and infectious disease
1. Historical context and background of
brucellosis in the world
1.1. History and spread of brucellosis across
the world
1.2. Conclusion
References
2. Brucellosis throughout human history
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Early evidence of human brucellosis
2.3. Discovery of Brucella
2.3.1. An investigation on the island of
Malta
2.4. Three diseases in one
2.5. Conclusion
References
3. The genetic diversity of Brucella species
Marcela Sua´rez-Esquivel, Jeffrey T. Foster and
Carine Rodrigues Pereira
3.1. Introduction
3.2. General characteristics of Brucella spp
3.3. Techniques to assess Brucella genetic
diversity
3.3.1. Multiple-Locus Variable Number
Tandem Repeat Analysis
3.3.2. WGS (Pangenome and SNP)
3.4. Evolution of Brucella from Ochrobactrum
3.5. Division into classical and atypical
3.6. Classical Brucella
3.6.1. Brucella melitensis
3.6.2. Brucella abortus
3.6.3. Brucella suis
3.6.4. Brucella ovis
3.6.5. Brucella neotomae
3.6.6. Brucella canis
3.6.7. Brucella ceti
3.6.8. Brucella pinnipedialis
3.6.9. Brucella microti
3.6.10. Brucella papionis
3.6.11. Brucella amazoniensis sp. nov
3.6.12. Brucella sp. F5/99
3.6.13. Brucella sp. BCCN84-3 and
B. nosferati
3.7. Atypical Brucella
3.7.1. Brucella inopinata
3.7.2. BO2
3.7.3. Australian rodent Brucella strains
3.7.4. 09RB8471 and 10RB9215
3.7.5. Brucella vulpis
3.7.6. 141012304
3.7.7. B13-0095
3.7.8. 191011898
3.7.9. BO3
3.8. Conclusions
References
Part II
Pathogenesis and immunobiology of
brucellosis
4. Pathogenesis and immunopathological
phenomena around Brucella infections
4.1. Clinical manifestations of human
brucellosis
4.2. Inflammation induced by Brucella
infections
4.3. Osteoarticular brucellosis
4.3.1. Bone structure: Interplay between
forming and resorbing cells
4.3.2. Brucella and osteoblasts/
osteocytes: Dangerous liaisons
4.3.3. Brucella and synoviocytes:
Beyond bone
4.3.4. Osteoclast activation by Brucella
4.4. Interactions of immune cells with bone
cells in the context of Brucella infection
4.5. Brucella placental infection and
pathological findings in the female
reproductive tract
4.5.1. Trophoblasts at the center of the
stage
4.5.2. In vitro approaches to understand
Brucella abortion in humans
4.5.3. Immune response to Brucella
infection in the maternal—fetal
interface
4.6. Neurobrucellosis
4.6.1. Getting there: Brucella and the
Trojan horse mechanism
4.6.2. Once inside: The negative loop
between glial cells and BBB
4.6.3. Inflammation in the middle of the
scene
4.6.4. Neurons as the ultimate target of
the inflammation storm or neurons
as the victim of this crime
4.7. Epididymoorchitis
4.8. Hepatic brucellosis
4.9. Cardiovascular brucellosis
4.10. Conclusion
References
5. Immunopathology in osteoarticular
Brucella infection
5.1. Clinical aspect of osteoarticular human
brucellosis
5.2. Spinal brucellosis
5.2.1. Spondylitis, spondylodiscitis, and
discitis
5.2.2. Sacroiliitis
5.2.3. Peripheral skeleton
5.3. Bone and immune system cross-talk
5.4. Classical pathways in bone cells
formation
5.5. Nonclassical pathways in bone cell
formation
5.6. Interaction between Brucella and bone
cells
5.6.1. Osteoclasts
5.6.2. Mesenchymal stem cells
5.6.3. Osteoblasts
5.6.4. Osteocytes
5.6.5. Synoviocytes
5.7. Animal model insights
5.8. Concluding remarks
References
Part III
Brucellosis in animals
6. Brucellosis in livestock and companion
animals
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Public health significance
6.3. Brucellosis in livestock
6.3.1. Cattle
6.3.2. Goat
6.3.3. Sheep
6.3.4. Pig
6.3.5. Camel
6.3.6. Horse
6.4. Brucellosis in companion animal species
6.4.1. Dog
6.5. Etiology
6.6. Pathogenesis
6.6.1. Brucella invasion strategies and
intracellular niche establishment
6.6.2. Target tissues and cellular tropism
6.6.3. Sialic acid-mediated adherence
and invasion: A gateway for
Brucella pathogenesis
6.6.4. Orchestrating cellular entry:
The role of cytoskeletal dynamics
in Brucella invasion
6.6.5. Divergent host inflammatory
responses to Brucella invasion
routes
6.6.6. Oxidative stress and immune
modulation
6.7. Intracellular survival and replication
6.7.1. Modulating phagosomal
acidification
6.7.2. Inhibiting macrophage apoptosis
6.8. Brucella’s atypical virulence arsenal
6.8.1. Type IV secretion system (virB
T4SS)
6.8.2. Brucella lipopolysaccharide
6.8.3. Pathogen-associated molecular
patterns
6.8.4. Two-component sensory and
regulatory system (BvrS/BvrR)
6.8.5. Cyclic β-glucan
6.9. Brucella dissemination, target tissues,
and manipulation of host processes
6.9.1. Dissemination and tissue tropism
6.9.2. A selective tropism for the reproductive
tract
6.9.3. Brucella—host interactions in the
placenta
6.9.4. Erythritol: A complex role in
pathogenesis
6.9.5. Targeted replication and placental
disruption
6.9.6. Endothelial invasion and villous
necrosis
6.9.7. A cascade culminating in
pregnancy loss
6.10. Clinical signs
6.10.1. Factors influencing clinical
presentation
6.10.2. Reproductive sequelae in
female animals
6.10.3. Mammary gland pathology
6.10.4. Testicular inflammation and
impaired fertility
6.10.5. Musculoskeletal manifestations
6.10.6. Reproductive disruption in doe
and ewe
6.10.7. Reproductive pathology in buck
and ram
6.10.8. Equine brucellosis
6.10.9. Porcine brucellosis
6.10.10. Canine brucellosis
6.11. Epidemiology
6.12. Geographic distribution of Brucella
species and biovars
6.12.1. Asia
6.12.2. Africa
6.12.3. America
6.12.4. Europe
6.13. Risk factors
6.13.1. Livestock production practices
and brucellosis prevalence
6.13.2. Seasonal and sex-based
epidemiological patterns in
brucellosis
6.13.3. Breed and brucellosis
susceptibility: A complex
relationship
6.13.4. Age-dependent susceptibility in
bovine brucellosis
6.14. Transmission
6.14.1. Ingestion: The predominant
route in livestock
6.14.2. Inhalation
6.14.3. Direct contact and fomite
transmission
6.14.4. Introduction of infected animals:
A critical consideration
6.14.5. Vertical and perinatal
transmission: A potential
concern
6.14.6. Venereal transmission
6.14.7. Per-conjunctival transmission
6.14.8. Urinary excretion
6.14.9. B. abortus shedding in equine
hosts
6.14.10. Wildlife reservoirs
6.14.11. Ticks as vectors
6.15. Economic impact of brucellosis
6.15.1. Direct production losses
6.15.2. Indirect economic consequences
6.15.3. Economic modeling and impact
on individual animals
6.15.4. Reproductive losses in ovine
herds
6.15.5. Distinct challenges in swine
production
6.15.6. Economic considerations for
brucellosis control programs
6.15.7. Global economic significance
of brucellosis control
6.16. Prevention and control
6.17. Success stories and ongoing challenges
6.18. Challenges and future directions: Novel
strategies and data exploration
AI disclosure
References
7. Brucellosis in dogs: epidemiology,
diagnosis, and public health concerns
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Epidemiology
7.3. The pathogenesis of B. canis
7.4. Clinical manifestations
7.5. Diagnosis
7.6. Prognosis and treatment in dogs
7.7. Control and prevention
7.8. Risk factor
7.9. Public health concerns
7.10. Conclusion
References
8. Brucellosis in aquatic mammals
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Brucella infection in aquatic mammals
8.2.1. Marine Brucella in other species
8.3. Distribution
8.4. Impact on the health of aquatic mammals
8.4.1. Clinical signs
8.4.2. Lesions
8.4.3. Consequences for populations
8.5. Transmission
8.5.1. Transmission routes
8.5.2. Risk factors
8.6. Diagnosis of Brucella in aquatic mammals
8.6.1. Direct diagnosis
8.6.2. Indirect diagnosis
8.6.3. Diagnostic challenges
8.7. Zoonosis and health surveillance
8.8. Conclusions
AI disclosure
References
9. Wildlife as reservoirs of brucellosis and
its transmission
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Diagnosis of Brucella in wildlife
9.3. Wildlife as a potential reservoir
9.4. Terrestrial reservoirs
9.4.1. Brucellosis in wild avian species
9.4.2. Brucellosis in amphibians
9.4.3. Brucellosis in large terrestrial
animals
9.4.4. Brucellosis in small and mediumsized
terrestrial animals
9.4.5. Brucellosis in bovidae
9.4.6. Brucellosis in cervidae
9.4.7. Brucellosis in wild snake
9.4.8. Brucellosis in rodents
9.4.9. Ticks as biological carrier
9.5. Aquatic reservoir
9.6. Transmission
9.6.1. Transmission of brucellosis between
animals
9.6.2. Factors influencing susceptibility
and transmission in wildlife
populations
9.6.3. Interactions between infected
wildlife and domestic animals
9.6.4. Strategies for minimizing
transmission within and
between wildlife
populations
9.7. Human health concerns
9.7.1. Routes of transmission from
wildlife to humans
9.7.2. Epidemiology of human
brucellosis cases linked to
wildlife exposure
9.7.3. Prevention and control measures
for at-risk populations
9.8. Conclusion
References
Part IV
Zoonotic transmission
10. Occupational exposure to Brucella spp.
and risk behaviors in exposed
professions
Elaine Dorneles, Andrey Lage and Carine
Rodrigues Pereira
10.1. History, epidemiology, and
contextualization
10.2. Occupational character
10.2.1. Farmers, rural workers, and
cowboys
10.2.2. Butchers
10.2.3. Veterinarians
10.2.4. Vaccine industry workers
10.2.5. Microbiologists
10.2.6. Kennel employees and animal
shelter workers
10.2.7. Hunters
10.3. Clinical signs
10.4. Diagnosis
10.5. Treatment
10.6. Control and prevention
10.7. Health education
10.8. Conclusions
References
11. Brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda:
Current status, challenges, and control
strategies
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Epidemiology and prevalence of
brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda
11.3. Economic impact of brucellosis in
Tanzania and Rwanda
11.4. Risk factors and transmission of
brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda
11.4.1. Limited community awareness
and education
11.4.2. Diverse livestock management
practices
11.4.3. Wildlife-livestock interface and
brucellosis transmission
11.4.4. Lack of biosecurity practices
11.4.5. Cross-border livestock
movement and trade
11.4.6. Cultural considerations and
gender roles
11.5. Current control strategies for
brucellosis
11.5.1. Test-and-slaughter programs
11.5.2. Vaccination programs
11.6. Proposed control strategies
11.7. Research and funding needs
11.8. Implementation challenges and critical
requirements for brucellosis control
11.9. Conclusion
AI disclosure
References
Part V
Diagnostic tools and techniques
12. Diagnostic tools and techniques for
Brucella detection
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Safety considerations
12.3. Indirect diagnosis
12.3.1. Acidified antigen
modifications (RBT and BPAT)
12.3.2. Serum agglutination test (SAT)
12.3.3. Complement fixation test
12.3.4. Rivanol precipitation
12.3.5. Milk ring test
12.3.6. Fluorescence polarization
assay (FPA)
12.3.7. Native hapten test (NHT)
12.3.8. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA)
12.3.9. Precipitation tests
12.3.10. Brucellin skin test (BST)
12.4. Direct methods
12.4.1. Culture methods
12.4.2. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
12.4.3. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR)
12.4.4. Nested and seminested PCR
12.5. Advanced techniques
12.5.1. Matrix-assisted laser
desorption/ionization time-offlight
mass spectrometry
(MALDI-TOF MS)
12.5.2. Next-generation sequencing
(NGS)
12.6. Detection of smooth and rough
isolates of Brucella spp
12.7. Sensitivity and specificity of tests
12.8. Conclusion
References
13. Pathology of brucellosis in livestock
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Pathology of brucellosis in small
ruminants
13.2.1. Brucella melitensis
13.2.2. Brucella ovis
13.2.3. Brucella abortus
13.3. Pathology of brucellosis in cattle and
other domestic bovids
13.3.1. Brucella abortus
13.3.2. Brucella suis
13.3.3. Brucella melitensis
13.4. Pathology of brucellosis in pigs
13.4.1. Brucella suis
13.4.2. Brucella melitensis and
B. abortus
13.5. Pathology of brucellosis in domestic
camelids
13.5.1. Brucella melitensis
13.5.2. Brucella abortus
13.5.3. Brucella suis
13.6. Pathology of brucellosis in other
animals raised for human consumption
13.6.1. Brucella abortus and Brucella
suis in horses
13.6.2. Brucella microti-like infection
in frogs raised for human
consumption
13.6.3. A note on Brucella spp.
infection in the hunting and
fishing context
References
Part VI
Clinical manifestations in humans
14. Brucellosis: Clinical manifestations
in humans
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Systemic brucellosis
14.3. Focal brucellosis
14.3.1. Osteoarticular infections
14.3.2. Genitourinary infections
14.3.3. Skin and soft tissue
manifestations
14.3.4. Neurobrucellosis
14.3.5. Cardiovascular infections
14.3.6. Digestive system infections
14.3.7. Respiratory infections
14.3.8. Ocular manifestations
14.4. Relapses and chronic brucellosis
14.5. Brucellosis in children
14.6. Brucellosis in pregnant women
14.7. Brucellosis in the immunocompromised
and transplanted patient
14.8. Differential diagnosis of brucellosis
14.9. Conclusion
References
15. Rare cases of human brucellosis
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Rare clinical cases of brucellosis
15.2.1. Focal osteoarticular disease
15.2.2. Cardiovascular rare cases
15.2.3. Pulmonary rare cases
15.2.4. Neurological rare cases
15.2.5. Rare hematological cases
15.2.6. Skin lesions
15.2.7. Rare cases of the digestive
system
15.2.8. Focal hepatic disease
15.2.9. Focal ophthalmologic disease
15.2.10. Urogenital brucellosis
15.2.11. Miscellaneous
15.3. Brucella in the immunocompromised
host
15.4. Rare ways of Brucella transmission to
humans
15.5. Human infection by rare Brucella
species
15.6. Conclusion
References
Part VII
Prevention and control in animals
16. The science of brucellosis
elimination
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Historical examples of brucellosis
elimination
16.3. Principles of brucellosis control
16.4. Animal—human brucellosis
transmission models
16.5. Framework conditions for elimination
16.6. Case studies on brucellosis control
16.6.1. Brucellosis control in
Mongolia
16.6.2. Brucellosis control in Armenia
16.6.3. Brucellosis control in the
Middle East
16.6.4. Brucellosis in Ethiopia
16.7. Cross-sector economics of brucellosis
control
16.8. Toward a game-theoretical approach
to brucellosis elimination
16.9. Assessment of freedom of brucellosis
16.10. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17. Brucellosis control, eradication,
and prevention
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Definitions
17.3. Choosing an appropriate strategy
17.3.1. Factors influencing strategy
selection
electronic versions of this book.
17.3.2. Strategy selection framework
17.3.3. One Health perspective
17.3.4. Adaptive management
17.3.5. Statement of objectives and
definition of indicators to
evaluate activities and
achievements
17.3.6. Planning of activities and data
flows
17.4. Prevention of human infection
17.5. Control program
17.5.1. Vaccination programs
17.5.2. Vaccination strategies
17.5.3. Challenges in brucellosis
vaccination
17.5.4. Integration with other control
measures
17.5.5. Transition to test-and-slaughter
policies
17.5.6. Herd accreditation and
separation
17.6. Eradication program
17.6.1. Test-and-slaughter policies
17.6.2. Implementation steps for a brucellosis
eradication program
17.6.3. Addressing challenges in
caprine and ovine brucellosis
17.6.4. Movement control and
restrictions
17.6.5. Surveillance of human
brucellosis
17.6.6. Special topics for eradication
programs
17.7. Conclusions
17.7.1. Main requirements for
brucellosis control and
eradication
17.7.2. Main constraints in brucellosis
control and eradication
17.8. Recommendations
References
18. Comprehensive strategies for
brucellosis control in endemic
areas
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Veterinary strategies for control of
brucellosis in endemic areas
18.3. Serological diagnoses of infected
animals as the critical part of the
test-and-slaughter policy
18.4. Animal vaccination in control
program of brucellosis
18.5. Supplementary measures in the
control program of brucellosis
18.6. Human health interventions
18.7. Integrated one-health approach
18.8. Community engagement and social
mobilization
18.9. Addressing challenges and gaps
18.10. Conclusion
References
19. Efficacy of Brucella vaccine strains: S19,
RB51, and Rev-1
19.1. Introduction
19.2. How to evaluate vaccine efficacy
19.3. Ideal vaccine for brucellosis
19.4. History, characteristics, and efficacy
of the vaccine strains currently used
for brucellosis control
19.4.1. S19 vaccine strain
19.4.2. RB51 vaccine strain
19.4.3. Rev.1 vaccine strain
19.4.4. Other live vaccines
19.5. Factors that may impact efficacy and
other vaccination aspects of brucellosis
19.5.1. Intrinsic host factors
19.5.2. Vaccine and administration
factors
19.6. Final considerations: Beyond vaccine
efficacy
References
Part VIII
Prevention and control in humans
20. Therapeutic advances in human
brucellosis
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Pharmacology of antibiotics
20.2.1. Doxycycline
20.2.2. Rifampicin
20.2.3. Aminoglycosides
20.2.4. Fluoroquinolones
20.2.5. Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole
20.2.6. Streptomycin
20.2.7. Tigecycline
20.3. Antibiotic treatment
20.3.1. Proposed regimens for
uncomplicated brucellosis
20.3.2. Proposed regimens for focal
disease
20.3.3. Proposed regimens for
pregnant women
20.3.4. Proposed regimens for
children
20.4. Complications
20.4.1. Osteoarticular complications
20.4.2. Neurological complications
20.4.3. Cardiovascular complications
20.4.4. Other complications
20.5. Prophylaxis and general
recommendations
20.5.1. Avoiding the consumption
of unpasteurized dairy
products
20.5.2. Implementing vaccination
campaigns for livestock in
endemic regions
20.5.3. Promoting the use of
personal protective
equipment
20.5.4. Public health education
20.5.5. Screening and monitoring
of at-risk populations
20.6. Brucellosis in children
20.7. Brucellosis in pregnant women
20.8. Recurrent or resistant brucellosis
20.8.1. Management of relapses and
resistance
20.9. Treatment strategies for severe or
chronic infections
20.10. New therapeutic approaches
20.11. Monitoring and follow-up of
patients
20.11.1. Serological testing
20.11.2. Imaging studies
20.11.3. Reevaluation of treatment
20.11.4. Long-term follow-up
20.11.5. Monitoring for adverse
effects
20.12. Conclusions and future perspectives
20.12.1. Advances in treatment
20.12.2. Challenges in treatment
adherence
20.12.3. Public health and vaccination
programs
20.12.4. Future perspectives
References
21. Medicinal plants used in the treatment
of brucellosis
21.1. Brucellosis: An overview
21.1.1. History
21.1.2. Pathogen
21.1.3. Routes of transmission
21.1.4. Clinical signs and symptoms
21.1.5. Diagnosis
21.1.6. Geographical distribution and
negative effects
21.2. Brucellosis treatment and surveillance
21.3. Brucellosis treatment by medicinal
plants and their derived products
21.3.1. Ethnobotany investigations
21.3.2. In vitro investigations
21.3.3. In vivo investigations
21.4. Future prospects and challenges in
the treatment of brucellosis
21.5. Conclusion
References
Part IX
One health approach
22. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices
(KAP) relating to brucellosis:
Unveiling the vital role of public
awareness
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Knowledge of brucellosis that is
important for farmers
22.2.1. Understanding the disease by
farmers
22.2.2. Symptoms and complications
of animal disease in farm
22.2.3. Modes of transmission in
animal brucellosis
22.2.4. Preventive measures
22.3. Attitudes toward brucellosis
22.3.1. Perceived severity and
susceptibility
22.3.2. Cultural beliefs and stigma
22.3.3. Trust in healthcare systems for
control of animal brucellosis
22.4. Public awareness
22.4.1. Public education on
transmission routes and
prevention of animal
brucellosis
22.4.2. Media campaigns
22.4.3. Community engagement
22.5. Improved livestock management
practices
22.6. Collaborative efforts
22.6.1. Government policies and
programs
22.6.2. Healthcare and veterinary
services
22.6.3. International cooperation
22.7. Knowledge, attitude, and practice
among high-risk occupations
22.8. Knowledge, attitude, and practice
among pastoral and rural
communities
22.9. Conclusion
References
23. One health approach to brucellosis
in SE Europe
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Researched geographical and time
frames
23.3. An overview of historical brucellosis
data, as well as surveillance and
eradication strategies
23.4. Country-by-country insights on
brucellosis, 1999—2024
23.4.1. Albania
23.4.2. Bosnia and Herzegovina
23.4.3. Bulgaria
23.4.4. Croatia
23.4.5. Greece
23.4.6. Kosovo
23.4.7. Montenegro
23.4.8. North Macedonia
23.4.9. Romania
23.4.10. Serbia
23.5. Brucella canis, a zoonotic agent reborn
in the COVID era
23.6. Conclusion and perspectives
References
Part X
Emerging trends and future prospects
24. Challenges posed by antibiotic
resistance in human and animal
brucellosis
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Epidemiology of brucellosis and
Brucella control program
24.3. Antibiotic treatment of animal
brucellosis
24.3.1. Antibiotic treatment in
livestock
24.3.2. Antibiotic treatment in
companion animals
24.4. Antibiotic treatment of human
brucellosis
24.5. Antibiotic resistances in animal and
human brucellosis
24.6. Factors contributing to antibiotic
resistance
24.7. One Health approach to antibiotic
resistance
24.8. Future directions and research
priorities
24.9. Conclusion
References
25. Antimicrobial resistance of Brucella
melitensis
25.1. Introduction
25.2. AMR―Principles, mechanisms, and
contributing factors
25.3. The basics of antimicrobial resistance
25.4. Resistance mechanisms
25.5. Factors contributing to the occurrence
and spread of AMR
25.6. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
25.6.1. Phenotypic methods
25.6.2. Broth microdilution
25.6.3. Agar dilution
25.6.4. Antimicrobial gradient method
25.6.5. Disc diffusion method
25.6.6. Molecular-based methods
25.6.7. PCR-based assays
25.6.8. Sequencing techniques
25.7. Phenotypic resistance in B. melitensis
25.8. Patterns and drivers of phenotypic
AMR in B. melitensis
25.8.1. Tetracyclines
25.8.2. Rifampin
25.8.3. Aminoglycosides
25.8.4. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
25.8.5. Fluoroquinolones
25.8.6. Cephalosporins
25.8.7. Macrolides
25.9. Future perspectives and conclusions
References
Part XI
Brucellosis in food safety and
processing
26. Brucellosis in food safety
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Brucella spp. and foodborne
transmission
26.2.1. Pathways of transmission to
humans
26.2.2. Risk factors for foodborne
transmission
26.3. Detection and identification of
Brucella spp. in food
26.3.1. Microbiological techniques
26.3.2. Molecular techniques
26.3.3. Serological techniques
26.3.4. Emerging technologies
26.4. Survival of Brucella spp. in food
26.4.1. Brucella survival in culture
media
26.4.2. Brucella survival in food
products
26.5. Reservoirs of infection
26.5.1. Animals
26.5.2. Milk products and retail
26.5.3. Meat and slaughter practices
26.5.4. Interhuman
transmission―Breastfeeding
26.6. Prevention and control measures
26.6.1. Farm-level interventions
26.6.2. Food industry practices
26.6.3. Public awareness campaigns
26.6.4. International guidelines
26.7. Conclusions
brucellosis in the world
1.1. History and spread of brucellosis across
the world
1.2. Conclusion
References
2. Brucellosis throughout human history
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Early evidence of human brucellosis
2.3. Discovery of Brucella
2.3.1. An investigation on the island of
Malta
2.4. Three diseases in one
2.5. Conclusion
References
3. The genetic diversity of Brucella species
Marcela Sua´rez-Esquivel, Jeffrey T. Foster and
Carine Rodrigues Pereira
3.1. Introduction
3.2. General characteristics of Brucella spp
3.3. Techniques to assess Brucella genetic
diversity
3.3.1. Multiple-Locus Variable Number
Tandem Repeat Analysis
3.3.2. WGS (Pangenome and SNP)
3.4. Evolution of Brucella from Ochrobactrum
3.5. Division into classical and atypical
3.6. Classical Brucella
3.6.1. Brucella melitensis
3.6.2. Brucella abortus
3.6.3. Brucella suis
3.6.4. Brucella ovis
3.6.5. Brucella neotomae
3.6.6. Brucella canis
3.6.7. Brucella ceti
3.6.8. Brucella pinnipedialis
3.6.9. Brucella microti
3.6.10. Brucella papionis
3.6.11. Brucella amazoniensis sp. nov
3.6.12. Brucella sp. F5/99
3.6.13. Brucella sp. BCCN84-3 and
B. nosferati
3.7. Atypical Brucella
3.7.1. Brucella inopinata
3.7.2. BO2
3.7.3. Australian rodent Brucella strains
3.7.4. 09RB8471 and 10RB9215
3.7.5. Brucella vulpis
3.7.6. 141012304
3.7.7. B13-0095
3.7.8. 191011898
3.7.9. BO3
3.8. Conclusions
References
Part II
Pathogenesis and immunobiology of
brucellosis
4. Pathogenesis and immunopathological
phenomena around Brucella infections
4.1. Clinical manifestations of human
brucellosis
4.2. Inflammation induced by Brucella
infections
4.3. Osteoarticular brucellosis
4.3.1. Bone structure: Interplay between
forming and resorbing cells
4.3.2. Brucella and osteoblasts/
osteocytes: Dangerous liaisons
4.3.3. Brucella and synoviocytes:
Beyond bone
4.3.4. Osteoclast activation by Brucella
4.4. Interactions of immune cells with bone
cells in the context of Brucella infection
4.5. Brucella placental infection and
pathological findings in the female
reproductive tract
4.5.1. Trophoblasts at the center of the
stage
4.5.2. In vitro approaches to understand
Brucella abortion in humans
4.5.3. Immune response to Brucella
infection in the maternal—fetal
interface
4.6. Neurobrucellosis
4.6.1. Getting there: Brucella and the
Trojan horse mechanism
4.6.2. Once inside: The negative loop
between glial cells and BBB
4.6.3. Inflammation in the middle of the
scene
4.6.4. Neurons as the ultimate target of
the inflammation storm or neurons
as the victim of this crime
4.7. Epididymoorchitis
4.8. Hepatic brucellosis
4.9. Cardiovascular brucellosis
4.10. Conclusion
References
5. Immunopathology in osteoarticular
Brucella infection
5.1. Clinical aspect of osteoarticular human
brucellosis
5.2. Spinal brucellosis
5.2.1. Spondylitis, spondylodiscitis, and
discitis
5.2.2. Sacroiliitis
5.2.3. Peripheral skeleton
5.3. Bone and immune system cross-talk
5.4. Classical pathways in bone cells
formation
5.5. Nonclassical pathways in bone cell
formation
5.6. Interaction between Brucella and bone
cells
5.6.1. Osteoclasts
5.6.2. Mesenchymal stem cells
5.6.3. Osteoblasts
5.6.4. Osteocytes
5.6.5. Synoviocytes
5.7. Animal model insights
5.8. Concluding remarks
References
Part III
Brucellosis in animals
6. Brucellosis in livestock and companion
animals
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Public health significance
6.3. Brucellosis in livestock
6.3.1. Cattle
6.3.2. Goat
6.3.3. Sheep
6.3.4. Pig
6.3.5. Camel
6.3.6. Horse
6.4. Brucellosis in companion animal species
6.4.1. Dog
6.5. Etiology
6.6. Pathogenesis
6.6.1. Brucella invasion strategies and
intracellular niche establishment
6.6.2. Target tissues and cellular tropism
6.6.3. Sialic acid-mediated adherence
and invasion: A gateway for
Brucella pathogenesis
6.6.4. Orchestrating cellular entry:
The role of cytoskeletal dynamics
in Brucella invasion
6.6.5. Divergent host inflammatory
responses to Brucella invasion
routes
6.6.6. Oxidative stress and immune
modulation
6.7. Intracellular survival and replication
6.7.1. Modulating phagosomal
acidification
6.7.2. Inhibiting macrophage apoptosis
6.8. Brucella’s atypical virulence arsenal
6.8.1. Type IV secretion system (virB
T4SS)
6.8.2. Brucella lipopolysaccharide
6.8.3. Pathogen-associated molecular
patterns
6.8.4. Two-component sensory and
regulatory system (BvrS/BvrR)
6.8.5. Cyclic β-glucan
6.9. Brucella dissemination, target tissues,
and manipulation of host processes
6.9.1. Dissemination and tissue tropism
6.9.2. A selective tropism for the reproductive
tract
6.9.3. Brucella—host interactions in the
placenta
6.9.4. Erythritol: A complex role in
pathogenesis
6.9.5. Targeted replication and placental
disruption
6.9.6. Endothelial invasion and villous
necrosis
6.9.7. A cascade culminating in
pregnancy loss
6.10. Clinical signs
6.10.1. Factors influencing clinical
presentation
6.10.2. Reproductive sequelae in
female animals
6.10.3. Mammary gland pathology
6.10.4. Testicular inflammation and
impaired fertility
6.10.5. Musculoskeletal manifestations
6.10.6. Reproductive disruption in doe
and ewe
6.10.7. Reproductive pathology in buck
and ram
6.10.8. Equine brucellosis
6.10.9. Porcine brucellosis
6.10.10. Canine brucellosis
6.11. Epidemiology
6.12. Geographic distribution of Brucella
species and biovars
6.12.1. Asia
6.12.2. Africa
6.12.3. America
6.12.4. Europe
6.13. Risk factors
6.13.1. Livestock production practices
and brucellosis prevalence
6.13.2. Seasonal and sex-based
epidemiological patterns in
brucellosis
6.13.3. Breed and brucellosis
susceptibility: A complex
relationship
6.13.4. Age-dependent susceptibility in
bovine brucellosis
6.14. Transmission
6.14.1. Ingestion: The predominant
route in livestock
6.14.2. Inhalation
6.14.3. Direct contact and fomite
transmission
6.14.4. Introduction of infected animals:
A critical consideration
6.14.5. Vertical and perinatal
transmission: A potential
concern
6.14.6. Venereal transmission
6.14.7. Per-conjunctival transmission
6.14.8. Urinary excretion
6.14.9. B. abortus shedding in equine
hosts
6.14.10. Wildlife reservoirs
6.14.11. Ticks as vectors
6.15. Economic impact of brucellosis
6.15.1. Direct production losses
6.15.2. Indirect economic consequences
6.15.3. Economic modeling and impact
on individual animals
6.15.4. Reproductive losses in ovine
herds
6.15.5. Distinct challenges in swine
production
6.15.6. Economic considerations for
brucellosis control programs
6.15.7. Global economic significance
of brucellosis control
6.16. Prevention and control
6.17. Success stories and ongoing challenges
6.18. Challenges and future directions: Novel
strategies and data exploration
AI disclosure
References
7. Brucellosis in dogs: epidemiology,
diagnosis, and public health concerns
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Epidemiology
7.3. The pathogenesis of B. canis
7.4. Clinical manifestations
7.5. Diagnosis
7.6. Prognosis and treatment in dogs
7.7. Control and prevention
7.8. Risk factor
7.9. Public health concerns
7.10. Conclusion
References
8. Brucellosis in aquatic mammals
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Brucella infection in aquatic mammals
8.2.1. Marine Brucella in other species
8.3. Distribution
8.4. Impact on the health of aquatic mammals
8.4.1. Clinical signs
8.4.2. Lesions
8.4.3. Consequences for populations
8.5. Transmission
8.5.1. Transmission routes
8.5.2. Risk factors
8.6. Diagnosis of Brucella in aquatic mammals
8.6.1. Direct diagnosis
8.6.2. Indirect diagnosis
8.6.3. Diagnostic challenges
8.7. Zoonosis and health surveillance
8.8. Conclusions
AI disclosure
References
9. Wildlife as reservoirs of brucellosis and
its transmission
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Diagnosis of Brucella in wildlife
9.3. Wildlife as a potential reservoir
9.4. Terrestrial reservoirs
9.4.1. Brucellosis in wild avian species
9.4.2. Brucellosis in amphibians
9.4.3. Brucellosis in large terrestrial
animals
9.4.4. Brucellosis in small and mediumsized
terrestrial animals
9.4.5. Brucellosis in bovidae
9.4.6. Brucellosis in cervidae
9.4.7. Brucellosis in wild snake
9.4.8. Brucellosis in rodents
9.4.9. Ticks as biological carrier
9.5. Aquatic reservoir
9.6. Transmission
9.6.1. Transmission of brucellosis between
animals
9.6.2. Factors influencing susceptibility
and transmission in wildlife
populations
9.6.3. Interactions between infected
wildlife and domestic animals
9.6.4. Strategies for minimizing
transmission within and
between wildlife
populations
9.7. Human health concerns
9.7.1. Routes of transmission from
wildlife to humans
9.7.2. Epidemiology of human
brucellosis cases linked to
wildlife exposure
9.7.3. Prevention and control measures
for at-risk populations
9.8. Conclusion
References
Part IV
Zoonotic transmission
10. Occupational exposure to Brucella spp.
and risk behaviors in exposed
professions
Elaine Dorneles, Andrey Lage and Carine
Rodrigues Pereira
10.1. History, epidemiology, and
contextualization
10.2. Occupational character
10.2.1. Farmers, rural workers, and
cowboys
10.2.2. Butchers
10.2.3. Veterinarians
10.2.4. Vaccine industry workers
10.2.5. Microbiologists
10.2.6. Kennel employees and animal
shelter workers
10.2.7. Hunters
10.3. Clinical signs
10.4. Diagnosis
10.5. Treatment
10.6. Control and prevention
10.7. Health education
10.8. Conclusions
References
11. Brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda:
Current status, challenges, and control
strategies
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Epidemiology and prevalence of
brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda
11.3. Economic impact of brucellosis in
Tanzania and Rwanda
11.4. Risk factors and transmission of
brucellosis in Tanzania and Rwanda
11.4.1. Limited community awareness
and education
11.4.2. Diverse livestock management
practices
11.4.3. Wildlife-livestock interface and
brucellosis transmission
11.4.4. Lack of biosecurity practices
11.4.5. Cross-border livestock
movement and trade
11.4.6. Cultural considerations and
gender roles
11.5. Current control strategies for
brucellosis
11.5.1. Test-and-slaughter programs
11.5.2. Vaccination programs
11.6. Proposed control strategies
11.7. Research and funding needs
11.8. Implementation challenges and critical
requirements for brucellosis control
11.9. Conclusion
AI disclosure
References
Part V
Diagnostic tools and techniques
12. Diagnostic tools and techniques for
Brucella detection
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Safety considerations
12.3. Indirect diagnosis
12.3.1. Acidified antigen
modifications (RBT and BPAT)
12.3.2. Serum agglutination test (SAT)
12.3.3. Complement fixation test
12.3.4. Rivanol precipitation
12.3.5. Milk ring test
12.3.6. Fluorescence polarization
assay (FPA)
12.3.7. Native hapten test (NHT)
12.3.8. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA)
12.3.9. Precipitation tests
12.3.10. Brucellin skin test (BST)
12.4. Direct methods
12.4.1. Culture methods
12.4.2. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
12.4.3. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR)
12.4.4. Nested and seminested PCR
12.5. Advanced techniques
12.5.1. Matrix-assisted laser
desorption/ionization time-offlight
mass spectrometry
(MALDI-TOF MS)
12.5.2. Next-generation sequencing
(NGS)
12.6. Detection of smooth and rough
isolates of Brucella spp
12.7. Sensitivity and specificity of tests
12.8. Conclusion
References
13. Pathology of brucellosis in livestock
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Pathology of brucellosis in small
ruminants
13.2.1. Brucella melitensis
13.2.2. Brucella ovis
13.2.3. Brucella abortus
13.3. Pathology of brucellosis in cattle and
other domestic bovids
13.3.1. Brucella abortus
13.3.2. Brucella suis
13.3.3. Brucella melitensis
13.4. Pathology of brucellosis in pigs
13.4.1. Brucella suis
13.4.2. Brucella melitensis and
B. abortus
13.5. Pathology of brucellosis in domestic
camelids
13.5.1. Brucella melitensis
13.5.2. Brucella abortus
13.5.3. Brucella suis
13.6. Pathology of brucellosis in other
animals raised for human consumption
13.6.1. Brucella abortus and Brucella
suis in horses
13.6.2. Brucella microti-like infection
in frogs raised for human
consumption
13.6.3. A note on Brucella spp.
infection in the hunting and
fishing context
References
Part VI
Clinical manifestations in humans
14. Brucellosis: Clinical manifestations
in humans
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Systemic brucellosis
14.3. Focal brucellosis
14.3.1. Osteoarticular infections
14.3.2. Genitourinary infections
14.3.3. Skin and soft tissue
manifestations
14.3.4. Neurobrucellosis
14.3.5. Cardiovascular infections
14.3.6. Digestive system infections
14.3.7. Respiratory infections
14.3.8. Ocular manifestations
14.4. Relapses and chronic brucellosis
14.5. Brucellosis in children
14.6. Brucellosis in pregnant women
14.7. Brucellosis in the immunocompromised
and transplanted patient
14.8. Differential diagnosis of brucellosis
14.9. Conclusion
References
15. Rare cases of human brucellosis
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Rare clinical cases of brucellosis
15.2.1. Focal osteoarticular disease
15.2.2. Cardiovascular rare cases
15.2.3. Pulmonary rare cases
15.2.4. Neurological rare cases
15.2.5. Rare hematological cases
15.2.6. Skin lesions
15.2.7. Rare cases of the digestive
system
15.2.8. Focal hepatic disease
15.2.9. Focal ophthalmologic disease
15.2.10. Urogenital brucellosis
15.2.11. Miscellaneous
15.3. Brucella in the immunocompromised
host
15.4. Rare ways of Brucella transmission to
humans
15.5. Human infection by rare Brucella
species
15.6. Conclusion
References
Part VII
Prevention and control in animals
16. The science of brucellosis
elimination
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Historical examples of brucellosis
elimination
16.3. Principles of brucellosis control
16.4. Animal—human brucellosis
transmission models
16.5. Framework conditions for elimination
16.6. Case studies on brucellosis control
16.6.1. Brucellosis control in
Mongolia
16.6.2. Brucellosis control in Armenia
16.6.3. Brucellosis control in the
Middle East
16.6.4. Brucellosis in Ethiopia
16.7. Cross-sector economics of brucellosis
control
16.8. Toward a game-theoretical approach
to brucellosis elimination
16.9. Assessment of freedom of brucellosis
16.10. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17. Brucellosis control, eradication,
and prevention
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Definitions
17.3. Choosing an appropriate strategy
17.3.1. Factors influencing strategy
selection
electronic versions of this book.
17.3.2. Strategy selection framework
17.3.3. One Health perspective
17.3.4. Adaptive management
17.3.5. Statement of objectives and
definition of indicators to
evaluate activities and
achievements
17.3.6. Planning of activities and data
flows
17.4. Prevention of human infection
17.5. Control program
17.5.1. Vaccination programs
17.5.2. Vaccination strategies
17.5.3. Challenges in brucellosis
vaccination
17.5.4. Integration with other control
measures
17.5.5. Transition to test-and-slaughter
policies
17.5.6. Herd accreditation and
separation
17.6. Eradication program
17.6.1. Test-and-slaughter policies
17.6.2. Implementation steps for a brucellosis
eradication program
17.6.3. Addressing challenges in
caprine and ovine brucellosis
17.6.4. Movement control and
restrictions
17.6.5. Surveillance of human
brucellosis
17.6.6. Special topics for eradication
programs
17.7. Conclusions
17.7.1. Main requirements for
brucellosis control and
eradication
17.7.2. Main constraints in brucellosis
control and eradication
17.8. Recommendations
References
18. Comprehensive strategies for
brucellosis control in endemic
areas
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Veterinary strategies for control of
brucellosis in endemic areas
18.3. Serological diagnoses of infected
animals as the critical part of the
test-and-slaughter policy
18.4. Animal vaccination in control
program of brucellosis
18.5. Supplementary measures in the
control program of brucellosis
18.6. Human health interventions
18.7. Integrated one-health approach
18.8. Community engagement and social
mobilization
18.9. Addressing challenges and gaps
18.10. Conclusion
References
19. Efficacy of Brucella vaccine strains: S19,
RB51, and Rev-1
19.1. Introduction
19.2. How to evaluate vaccine efficacy
19.3. Ideal vaccine for brucellosis
19.4. History, characteristics, and efficacy
of the vaccine strains currently used
for brucellosis control
19.4.1. S19 vaccine strain
19.4.2. RB51 vaccine strain
19.4.3. Rev.1 vaccine strain
19.4.4. Other live vaccines
19.5. Factors that may impact efficacy and
other vaccination aspects of brucellosis
19.5.1. Intrinsic host factors
19.5.2. Vaccine and administration
factors
19.6. Final considerations: Beyond vaccine
efficacy
References
Part VIII
Prevention and control in humans
20. Therapeutic advances in human
brucellosis
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Pharmacology of antibiotics
20.2.1. Doxycycline
20.2.2. Rifampicin
20.2.3. Aminoglycosides
20.2.4. Fluoroquinolones
20.2.5. Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole
20.2.6. Streptomycin
20.2.7. Tigecycline
20.3. Antibiotic treatment
20.3.1. Proposed regimens for
uncomplicated brucellosis
20.3.2. Proposed regimens for focal
disease
20.3.3. Proposed regimens for
pregnant women
20.3.4. Proposed regimens for
children
20.4. Complications
20.4.1. Osteoarticular complications
20.4.2. Neurological complications
20.4.3. Cardiovascular complications
20.4.4. Other complications
20.5. Prophylaxis and general
recommendations
20.5.1. Avoiding the consumption
of unpasteurized dairy
products
20.5.2. Implementing vaccination
campaigns for livestock in
endemic regions
20.5.3. Promoting the use of
personal protective
equipment
20.5.4. Public health education
20.5.5. Screening and monitoring
of at-risk populations
20.6. Brucellosis in children
20.7. Brucellosis in pregnant women
20.8. Recurrent or resistant brucellosis
20.8.1. Management of relapses and
resistance
20.9. Treatment strategies for severe or
chronic infections
20.10. New therapeutic approaches
20.11. Monitoring and follow-up of
patients
20.11.1. Serological testing
20.11.2. Imaging studies
20.11.3. Reevaluation of treatment
20.11.4. Long-term follow-up
20.11.5. Monitoring for adverse
effects
20.12. Conclusions and future perspectives
20.12.1. Advances in treatment
20.12.2. Challenges in treatment
adherence
20.12.3. Public health and vaccination
programs
20.12.4. Future perspectives
References
21. Medicinal plants used in the treatment
of brucellosis
21.1. Brucellosis: An overview
21.1.1. History
21.1.2. Pathogen
21.1.3. Routes of transmission
21.1.4. Clinical signs and symptoms
21.1.5. Diagnosis
21.1.6. Geographical distribution and
negative effects
21.2. Brucellosis treatment and surveillance
21.3. Brucellosis treatment by medicinal
plants and their derived products
21.3.1. Ethnobotany investigations
21.3.2. In vitro investigations
21.3.3. In vivo investigations
21.4. Future prospects and challenges in
the treatment of brucellosis
21.5. Conclusion
References
Part IX
One health approach
22. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices
(KAP) relating to brucellosis:
Unveiling the vital role of public
awareness
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Knowledge of brucellosis that is
important for farmers
22.2.1. Understanding the disease by
farmers
22.2.2. Symptoms and complications
of animal disease in farm
22.2.3. Modes of transmission in
animal brucellosis
22.2.4. Preventive measures
22.3. Attitudes toward brucellosis
22.3.1. Perceived severity and
susceptibility
22.3.2. Cultural beliefs and stigma
22.3.3. Trust in healthcare systems for
control of animal brucellosis
22.4. Public awareness
22.4.1. Public education on
transmission routes and
prevention of animal
brucellosis
22.4.2. Media campaigns
22.4.3. Community engagement
22.5. Improved livestock management
practices
22.6. Collaborative efforts
22.6.1. Government policies and
programs
22.6.2. Healthcare and veterinary
services
22.6.3. International cooperation
22.7. Knowledge, attitude, and practice
among high-risk occupations
22.8. Knowledge, attitude, and practice
among pastoral and rural
communities
22.9. Conclusion
References
23. One health approach to brucellosis
in SE Europe
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Researched geographical and time
frames
23.3. An overview of historical brucellosis
data, as well as surveillance and
eradication strategies
23.4. Country-by-country insights on
brucellosis, 1999—2024
23.4.1. Albania
23.4.2. Bosnia and Herzegovina
23.4.3. Bulgaria
23.4.4. Croatia
23.4.5. Greece
23.4.6. Kosovo
23.4.7. Montenegro
23.4.8. North Macedonia
23.4.9. Romania
23.4.10. Serbia
23.5. Brucella canis, a zoonotic agent reborn
in the COVID era
23.6. Conclusion and perspectives
References
Part X
Emerging trends and future prospects
24. Challenges posed by antibiotic
resistance in human and animal
brucellosis
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Epidemiology of brucellosis and
Brucella control program
24.3. Antibiotic treatment of animal
brucellosis
24.3.1. Antibiotic treatment in
livestock
24.3.2. Antibiotic treatment in
companion animals
24.4. Antibiotic treatment of human
brucellosis
24.5. Antibiotic resistances in animal and
human brucellosis
24.6. Factors contributing to antibiotic
resistance
24.7. One Health approach to antibiotic
resistance
24.8. Future directions and research
priorities
24.9. Conclusion
References
25. Antimicrobial resistance of Brucella
melitensis
25.1. Introduction
25.2. AMR―Principles, mechanisms, and
contributing factors
25.3. The basics of antimicrobial resistance
25.4. Resistance mechanisms
25.5. Factors contributing to the occurrence
and spread of AMR
25.6. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
25.6.1. Phenotypic methods
25.6.2. Broth microdilution
25.6.3. Agar dilution
25.6.4. Antimicrobial gradient method
25.6.5. Disc diffusion method
25.6.6. Molecular-based methods
25.6.7. PCR-based assays
25.6.8. Sequencing techniques
25.7. Phenotypic resistance in B. melitensis
25.8. Patterns and drivers of phenotypic
AMR in B. melitensis
25.8.1. Tetracyclines
25.8.2. Rifampin
25.8.3. Aminoglycosides
25.8.4. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
25.8.5. Fluoroquinolones
25.8.6. Cephalosporins
25.8.7. Macrolides
25.9. Future perspectives and conclusions
References
Part XI
Brucellosis in food safety and
processing
26. Brucellosis in food safety
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Brucella spp. and foodborne
transmission
26.2.1. Pathways of transmission to
humans
26.2.2. Risk factors for foodborne
transmission
26.3. Detection and identification of
Brucella spp. in food
26.3.1. Microbiological techniques
26.3.2. Molecular techniques
26.3.3. Serological techniques
26.3.4. Emerging technologies
26.4. Survival of Brucella spp. in food
26.4.1. Brucella survival in culture
media
26.4.2. Brucella survival in food
products
26.5. Reservoirs of infection
26.5.1. Animals
26.5.2. Milk products and retail
26.5.3. Meat and slaughter practices
26.5.4. Interhuman
transmission―Breastfeeding
26.6. Prevention and control measures
26.6.1. Farm-level interventions
26.6.2. Food industry practices
26.6.3. Public awareness campaigns
26.6.4. International guidelines
26.7. Conclusions
- Edition: 1
- Latest edition
- Published: October 29, 2025
- Language: English
MD
Maryam Dadar
Maryam Dadar, DVM, PhD, is currently a researcher at the Veterinary Council of Iran, Tehran, Iran. She s an Assistant Professor in the Department of Brucellosis at the Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute in Iran. Her extensive expertise lies in the field of microbiology and molecular biology, with main areas of research in zoonotic diseases, microbial risk assessments, Brucellosis prevention and control, and One Health. She has published articles in numerous international journals, edited books including an Elsevier title on brucellosis, and serves as an editor and is on the editorial board of a number of journals such as Microbial Risk Analysis (Elsevier). Dr. Dadar actively participates in international, multidisciplinary research collaborations with colleagues in Germany, United Kingdom, United States, and Pakistan and in educational initiatives aimed at advancing the scientific foundations of zoonotic infections, veterinary science, and molecular medicine.
Affiliations and expertise
Researcher, Department of Brucellosis at the Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Karaj, IranIranRead Brucellosis on ScienceDirect