Brewing Microbiology

Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality and Valorising Waste

2nd Edition - January 20, 2025
Editor: Annie Hill
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 6 0 6 - 8
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 6 0 7 - 5

Brewing Microbiology: Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality and Valorising Waste, Second Edition covers micro-organisms of significance to the brewing industry, including the most… Read more

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Brewing Microbiology: Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality and Valorising Waste, Second Edition covers micro-organisms of significance to the brewing industry, including the most recent threats to beer quality and stability that have emerged. Reflecting the significant surge in production of no- and low-alcohol (NOLO) beers and Hard Seltzers since the publication of the 1st edition, and the lack of information available on the increased microbiological risk associated with these beverages – and how to control them, a new chapter "Maintaining microbiological quality control in Hard Seltzers and NOLO beverages" provides best practices in ensuring safe and effective management in production and stability. Sustainability and the environment have been at the forefront of brewers strategic thinking for many years. The first edition of Brewing Microbiology included coverage of anaerobic treatments of brewery waste and waste-water treatment. This section has been expanded to cover recent innovations in the valorization of brewery waste streams, such as biotransformation of brewers spent grains.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Introduction to brewing microbiology 2E
Brewing yeast
Process and product integrity
Waste valorisation
Acknowledgements
Part I. Yeast: Properties and management
Chapter 1. Brewing yeasts: An overview
1.1 Yeasts
1.2 Ale yeasts
1.3 Lager yeasts
1.4 Non-saccharomyces brewing yeasts
1.5 Perspectives
Chapter 2. Yeast quality assessment, management and culture maintenance
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives of wort fermentation
2.3 Brewer's yeast species
2.4 Yeast management
2.5 Storage of yeast stock cultures between propagations
2.6 Preservation of yeast strains
2.7 Yeast propagation
2.8 Yeast collection
2.9 Yeast storage
2.10 Yeast washing
2.11 Yeast stress
2.12 Dried yeast
2.13 Conclusions
Chapter 3. Theory and practice of fermentation modeling
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Parameters influencing yeast growth and fermentation of barley malt
3.3 Modelling: techniques and applications
3.3.1 Modelling fermentations
3.3.2 Logistic models
3.3.3 The incomplete β-function
3.3.4 Additional models
3.3.5 Application of models
3.4 Advanced fermentation techniques
3.5 Future trends and sources for further information
3.6 Closing remarks
Chapter 4. Advances in metabolic engineering of yeasts
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Metabolic engineering
4.3 Tools for metabolic engineering
4.4 Strategies for metabolic engineering
4.5 Brewing yeast genetics
4.6 Metabolic engineering and the complexities of metabolic regulation
4.7 Impact of brewing yeast population dynamics
4.8 Targets for engineering of brewing yeast
4.9 Future perspective
4.10 Further sources of further information
Chapter 5. Yeast identification and characterisation
5.1 Biodiversity and characterisation of yeast species and strains from a brewing environment
5.2 Microbiological, physiological, identification and typing methods
5.2.1 Differences in top- and bottom-fermenting brewing yeast strains
5.2.2 Overview of identification methods
5.2.3 Selection of successful standard and recently introduced methods
5.2.4 Promising new methods
5.3 Brewing yeast cell count/viability/vitality methods
5.3.1 Cell-counting methods
5.3.2 Viability methods
5.3.3 Vitality methods
5.4 Monitoring yeast and fermentation
5.4.1 Wort and yeast specifications
5.4.2 Monitoring of fermentation and maturation parameters and their application with yeast
Part II. Spoilage bacteria and other contaminants
Chapter 6. Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in the barley-to-beer chain
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Barley malt: A key raw material in brewing
6.3 Evolution of fungi in the barley–malt ecosystem
6.4 Impacts of barley-associated fungi on malt quality
6.5 Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium mycotoxins
6.5.1 Aflatoxins
6.5.2 Ochratoxin A
6.5.3 Fusarium toxins
6.6 Fate of mycotoxins in the barley-to-beer chain
6.6.1 Mycotoxins in barley and malting
6.6.2 Mycotoxins in brewing and beer
6.6.3 Mycotoxins in by-products
6.7 Regulation of mycotoxins in Europe
6.8 Emerging mycotoxin issues
6.8.1 Modified mycotoxins
6.8.2 Enniatins and beauvericin
6.9 Preventive actions
6.9.1 Pre-harvest management
6.9.2 Post-harvest management
6.9.3 Mitigation measures during processing
6.9.4 Sampling and on-site mycotoxin detection methods
6.10 Future trends
6.11 Sources of further information and advice
Chapter 7. Gram-positive spoilage bacteria in brewing
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Beer-spoilage LAB
7.2.1 Historical backgrounds and taxonomy
7.2.2 General features of beer-spoilage LAB
7.2.3 Association of beer-spoilage LAB with their habitat
7.2.4 Factors affecting the growth of LAB in beer
7.2.5 Probiotic potential of beer-spoilage LAB
7.3 Hop tolerance mechanisms in beer-spoilage LAB
7.3.1 Antibacterial effects of hop bitter acids
7.3.2 Hop tolerance mechanisms associated with cytoplasmic membrane
7.3.3 Hop tolerance mechanisms associated with cell wall
7.3.4 Other hop tolerance mechanisms
7.3.5 Hop tolerance genes and their distribution in beer-spoilage LAB
7.3.6 Hypothetical origin of beer-spoilage LAB
7.4 Culture and preservation methods for beer-spoilage LAB
7.4.1 Stability of hop tolerance ability
7.4.2 Stability of hop tolerance genes
7.4.3 Culturability of beer-spoilage LAB
7.4.4 Subculture and preservation methods of beer-spoilage LAB
7.5 Identification of emerging beer-spoilage LAB in the brewing industry
7.5.1 Species-specific PCR for beer-spoilage LAB detection and identification method
7.5.2 Species-independent PCR for beer-spoilage LAB detection and identification method
7.5.3 Third-generation DNA sequencing technology-based method for comprehensive detection and identification of beer-spoilage bacteria
7.6 Other Gram-positive bacteria in brewing
7.6.1 Brewery-related LAB other than Lactobacillus and Pediococcus
7.6.2 Endospore-forming bacteria
7.6.3 Other Gram-positive bacteria relevant in brewing
7.7 Concluding remarks
Chapter 8. Gram-negative spoilage bacteria in brewing
8.1 Introduction: Gram-negative bacteria in brewing
8.2 Acetic acid bacteria
8.2.1 Taxonomic status of brewery-related AAB
8.2.2 Metabolic aspects of AAB
8.2.3 Occurrence and beer spoilage by AAB
8.2.4 Detection of AAB
8.3 Zymomonas
8.3.1 Taxonomic status of Zymomonas
8.3.2 Occurrence and beer spoilage ability of Zymomonas
8.3.3 Metabolic aspects of Zymomonas
8.3.4 Detection of Zymomonas
8.4 Brewery-related Enterobacteriaceae
8.4.1 Obesumbacterium proteus/Shimwellia pseudoproteus
8.4.2 Coliform bacteria related to brewing environments
8.4.3 Detection of Enterobacteriaceae in brewery environments
8.5 Conclusions
Chapter 9. Strictly anaerobic beer-spoilage bacteria
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The types of strictly anaerobic beer-spoilage bacteria
9.2.1 Pectinatus
9.2.2 Megasphaera
9.2.3 Selenomonas and Propionispira (Zymophilus)
9.2.4 Prevotella
9.3 Occurrence in artificial and natural environments
9.3.1 Pectinatus
9.3.2 Megasphaera
9.3.3 Selenomonas and Propionispira
9.3.4 Prevotella
9.4 Appearance of cells and laboratory cultures
9.4.1 Pectinatus
9.4.2 Megasphaera
9.4.3 Selenomonas and Propionispira
9.4.4 Prevotella
9.5 General physiology and metabolism
9.5.1 Pectinatus
9.5.2 Megasphaera
9.5.3 Selenomonas and Propionispira
9.5.4 Prevotella
9.6 Growth and effects in beer
9.6.1 Pectinatus
9.6.2 Megasphaera
9.6.3 Selenomonas and Propionispira
9.6.4 Prevotella
9.7 Management of contaminations
9.7.1 Prevention
9.7.2 Elimination
9.8 Future outlook and research needs
9.9 Sources of further information and advice
Part III. Reducing microbial spoilage: Design and technology
Chapter 10. Hygienic design and cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems in breweries
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Brewery contamination
10.2.1 Beer is a hostile environment
10.2.2 Types of contamination recognised in the brewery
10.2.3 The prevalence of microorganisms in the brewery
10.3 The main principles of hygienic design as applied in the brewery
10.3.1 Brewery pipework design and layout to minimise contamination
10.3.2 Operating conditions required to achieve a cleaning action in pipework
10.3.3 Hygienic design and operating practice of valves, fixtures and fittings
10.3.4 The effect of material surface finish on microbial surface adhesion
10.4 An overview of cleaning-in-place systems used in the brewery
10.4.1 Operating conditions of a Cleaning-In-Place system in the brewery
10.4.2 Types of Cleaning-In-Place systems recognised across the brewery
10.4.2.1 Single use
10.4.2.2 Partial and full recovery cleaning system
10.4.3 Cleaning-In-Place fluid composition
10.4.3.1 Detergents
10.4.3.2 Steriliant
10.4.4 Evaluation of the effectiveness of Cleaning-In-Place systems
10.5 Conclusions
10.6 Commentary/future trends
10.6.1 Future brewery designs and the impact on water and energy recovery
10.6.2 Developments in nanotechnology to provide antimicrobial surfaces and materials
10.6.3 Developments in data-driven approaches to cleaning
10.7 Further information and advice
Chapter 11. Reducing microbial spoilage of beer using filtration
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Filtration technologies in brewing
11.3 Filter aid filtration
11.4 Crossflow microfiltration
11.5 Sterile filtration
11.5.1 Cartridge filtration
11.5.2 Integrity testing
11.5.3 Other sterile filters
11.5.4 Downstream process
11.6 Improving filtration performance
11.6.1 Centrifugation
11.6.2 Flocculants (finings)
11.6.3 Enzyme treatments
11.7 Future trends
11.8 Sources of further information and advice
Chapter 12. Reducing microbial spoilage of beer using pasteurisation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 History
12.3 Principles of pasteurisation
12.4 D value, z value, P value, process time, pasteurisation units and L value
12.5 Spoilage hurdles
12.5.1 Ethanol
12.5.2 Low pH
12.5.3 Hop resins
12.5.4 Carbon dioxide
12.5.5 Low oxygen level
12.5.6 Low nutrient content
12.6 Microorganism heat resistance
12.7 Tunnel pasteurisation
12.7.1 Cleaning
12.8 Flash pasteurisation
12.8.1 Process control
12.8.2 Gas breakout
12.8.3 Plate failure
12.9 Flavour change
12.10 Good practice and quality control
12.10.1 Microbiological problems
12.11 Future trends
12.12 Sources of further information and advice
Chapter 13. Maintaining microbiological quality control in NOLO beverages and hard seltzers
13.1 Production of LAB, AFB and hard seltzers
13.1.1 LAB and AFB
13.1.2 Production of hard seltzers
13.2 Characteristics of LABs, AFBs and hard seltzers
13.3 Spoilage risk in LABs, AFBs and hard seltzers
13.4 Potential spoilers of LABs, AFBs and hard seltzers
13.4.1 Enterobacteriaceae
13.4.2 Clostridium
13.4.3 Bacillus, Brevibacillus and Paenibacillus
13.4.4 Listeria and Staphylococcus
13.4.5 Leuconostoc and Oenococcus
13.5 Mitigating against spoilage of LABs, AFBs and hard seltzers
13.6 Conclusions and future considerations
Chapter 14. Traditional methods of detection and identification of brewery spoilage organisms
14.1 Detection of brewery spoilage organisms
14.1.1 Raw materials
14.1.1.1 Cereals
14.1.1.2 Water
14.1.1.3 Yeast
14.1.1.4 Hops
14.1.1.5 Sugars and syrups
14.1.2 Brewing process
14.1.2.1 Brewery surfaces
14.1.2.2 Air and process gases
14.1.2.3 Wort
14.1.2.4 Fermentation
14.1.3 Product
14.1.3.1 Bright beer
14.1.3.2 Packaging
14.1.3.3 Dispense
14.2 Identification of brewing spoilage organisms
14.3 Summary
Chapter 15. Rapid detection and identification of spoilage microorganisms in beer
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cell-based methods
15.2.1 Hygiene tests (ATP bioluminescence, oxidoreductase)
15.2.2 Fluorescence microscopy and cytometry
15.2.3 MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry
15.2.4 Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy
15.2.5 Biosensors
15.3 Nucleic-acid based methods
15.3.1 Polymerase chain reaction
15.3.1.1 Primer design
15.3.1.2 Endpoint PCR
15.3.1.3 Real-time or quantitative PCR
15.3.1.4 Multiplex PCR
15.3.1.5 Nested PCR
15.3.1.6 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification
15.3.1.7 RT-PCR
15.3.1.8 Differentiation between viable and nonviable cells
15.3.2 In situ hybridisation detection systems
15.3.3 DNA Microarrays
15.3.4 Sequencing
15.4 Emerging technologies
15.5 Conclusions
Chapter 16. Beer packaging: Microbiological–hazards and considerations
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microbiological hazards in the filling hall
16.2.1 Filling machine
16.2.1.1 Filler design
16.2.1.2 Process steps in the filling machine
16.2.1.3 Media transport
16.2.1.4 Filling process
16.2.1.5 Transfer to closing machine
16.2.2 Closing machine
16.2.3 Packaging material
16.2.3.1 Nonreturnable bottles
16.2.3.2 Returnable bottles
16.2.3.3 Cans
16.2.3.4 Plastic bottles
16.2.3.5 Kegs
16.2.3.6 Other containers
16.2.3.7 Closures
16.2.3.8 Other packaging aids
16.2.4 Water
16.2.5 Air
16.2.6 Carbon dioxide
16.2.7 Environment
16.3 Biofilm growth in the packaging hall
16.4 Minimisation of risks
16.4.1 General
16.4.2 Cleaning and sanitation
16.4.3 Ultraclean filling
16.5 Future trends
Chapter 17. Draught beer: Hygiene, microbiology and quality
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Global beer market
17.1.2 Draught beer market
17.1.3 Beer dispense
17.2 Draught beer: hygiene
17.2.1 Line cleaning
17.2.2 Line composition
17.2.3 Keg contamination (couplers+FOB)
17.2.4 Taps and nozzles
17.2.5 Temperature
17.2.6 Throughput
17.3 Draught beer: microbiology
17.3.1 Spoilage
17.3.2 Biofilms
17.3.3 Microbiota
17.4 Draught beer: quality
17.4.1 Consumers
17.4.2 Microbiological testing
17.4.3 Forcing
17.4.4 Trade quality
17.4.5 Impact of best hygienic practice
17.5 Other draught beverages
17.5.1 Alcohol-free beers
17.5.2 Cider
17.6 Improving quality
17.6.1 Low hanging fruit
17.6.2 Step change
17.6.3 Cultural change
Part IV. Impact of microbiology on sensory quality
Chapter 18. Biotransformation of wort components for appearance, flavour and health
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Impact of yeast on beer appearance
18.3 Impact of yeast on beer flavour
18.3.1 Impact of yeast on beer taste
18.3.2 Impact of yeast on beer aroma
18.3.2.1 Alcohols
18.3.2.2 Aldehydes
18.3.2.3 Acids
18.3.2.4 Esters
18.3.2.5 Ketones
18.3.2.6 Volatile phenolic compounds
18.3.2.7 Terpenoids
18.3.2.8 Volatile sulphur compounds
18.4 Impact of bacteria on beer appearance and flavour
18.5 Impact of yeast on the health properties of beer
18.6 Impact of bacteria on the health properties of beer
18.7 Future trends
18.8 Further information
Chapter 19. Sensory analysis as a tool for microbial quality control in the brewery
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Part 1: Microbes, flavours, novel flavour profiles, off-flavours and taints in brewing
19.2.1 Microbial spoilage overview
19.2.2 Off-flavours and off-odours
19.2.3 Taints and off-flavours
19.2.4 Air, water, minerals and raw materials
19.3 The microbiology of ‘atypical flavour’ production in brewing—An overview
19.3.1 Moulds—Additional factors for consideration
19.3.2 Beer and wort—Overview, with some sensory evaluation considerations
19.3.3 Beer wort spoiling bacteria
19.3.4 Beer spoiling bacteria
19.3.5 Beer spoiling yeast—An early broad introduction
19.4 Speciality beer production and processes
19.4.1 Biological acidification
19.4.2 Speciality beers—Wheat beers
19.4.3 Speciality beers—Berliner Weisse
19.4.4 Speciality beers—Sour beers—An introduction
19.4.5 Speciality beers—Brett beers—And introducing phenolic off-flavour
19.4.6 Speciality beers—Lambic and gueuze
19.4.7 Speciality beers—Wood and barrel-aged beers
19.4.8 Pasteurisation, dry hopping and introducing bottle conditioning
19.5 New developments in the uses and applications of microorganisms for flavourful beer production: Strains and hybrids as used in pure culture or within in-sequence fermentations
19.5.1 Introduction—A wild world of fermentation
19.5.1.1 Saccharomyces or non-Saccharomyces?—Of yeasts, alternate yeast species, hybrids, mutants and genomic variation
19.5.1.2 Species hybridisation—Seeking desired traits for flavour production
19.5.1.3 The taming of the yeasts and bioprospecting
19.5.1.4 Beer fermented with yeasts more commonly associated with other fermented beverages
19.5.1.5 Of species, strains and flavour tales. A brief listing of some key alternate brewery fermentative yeasts
19.5.2 Non- and low-alcoholic beers
19.5.3 The problem with diacetyl—Avoiding buttery beers and the situation with dry hopping and yeast-based bio-transformations
19.5.4 Lambic beers
19.5.5 Brettanomyces—Organisms with multiple complex roles to play
19.5.6 Coolships, blending and bottle conditioning/refermentation
19.5.7 Barrel ageing: Sorting out some issues with the use of wood
19.5.8 Ending on a sour note: As beer goes sour by intention. A bio-prospecting addendum note and a resounding summation
19.6 Conclusion—Part 1
19.7 Part 2: Sensory evaluation
19.7.1 Getting started with sensory
19.7.2 Creating an effective sensory team
19.7.3 New panelists
19.7.4 Building a vocabulary
19.7.5 Brand profiles
19.8 Raw materials
19.9 Gathering data for sensory evaluation
19.9.1 Paper or electronic?
19.9.2 Presenting sensory panel data
19.9.3 Shelf-life evaluation
19.9.4 Proactive sensory
19.9.5 Sensory training
19.10 Conclusion—Part 2
Part V. The recycling and valorisation of brewing residues
Chapter 20. Anaerobic treatment of brewery wastes
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Key factors affecting the anaerobic digestion process
20.2.1 Organic content
20.2.2 Nutrients
20.2.3 pH and alkalinity
20.2.4 Temperature
20.2.5 Solid and hydraulic retention times
20.2.6 Organic loading rate
20.2.7 Toxic compounds
20.2.8 Treatment configuration: Single- and multi-stage systems
20.3 Factors affecting the application of anaerobic digestion in waste treatment
20.3.1 Pre-treatment of wastes
20.3.2 Co-digestion
20.3.3 Technology selection
20.3.4 Biogas production and use
20.3.5 Digestate handling and disposal
20.4 Anaerobic treatment of brewery wastes
20.4.1 Waste production and collection
20.4.2 Constituents of wastes
20.4.3 Treatment and pre-treatment requirements
20.4.4 Co-digestion
20.4.5 Biogas production
20.4.6 Digestate management
20.5 Conclusion and perspectives
Chapter 21. Water treatment and reuse in breweries
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Production and composition of brewery wastewater
21.3 Pre-treatment of brewery wastewater
21.3.1 Physical pre-treatment methods
21.3.2 Chemical pre-treatment methods
21.3.3 Biological pre-treatment methods
21.4 Advanced treatment of brewery wastewater
21.4.1 Membrane filtration technologies
21.4.2 Membrane bioreactor technologies
21.4.3 Electrochemical technologies
21.4.4 Microbial fuel cell technologies
21.4.5 Electric discharge plasma technologies
21.5 Challenges and future prospects
21.6 Conclusions
Index

Life Sciences

Physical Sciences & Engineering

Social Sciences & Humanities

Health

Brewing Microbiology

Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality and Valorising Waste

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Annie Hill