Biopolymers: Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal

ForewordAbbreviations

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to biopolymers 1.1 Rationale for use of biopolymers 1.2 Types of biopolymers 1.3 Polyesters 1.3.1 Poly(hydroxy acid)s 1.3.2 Poly(alkylene dicarboxylate)s 1.4 Poly(ether-ester)s 1.5 Aliphatic polycarbonates 1.6 Polyamides 1.7 Poly(ester amides) 1.8 Poly(ether amide)s 1.9 Polyurethanes (bio-based PU) 1.10 Polysaccharides 1.11 Vinyl polymers 1.12 Diene polymers 1.13 Other biodegradable polymers 1.14 Biopolymer compositions 1.14.1 Blends 1.14.2 Additives and modifiers 1.15 Biodegradable biopolymer additives 1.16 Sources of biopolymers 1.17 Applications and parts 1.17.1 Service packaging 1.17.2 Food-services 1.17.3 Agriculture/forestry/horticulture 1.17.4 Consumer electronics 1.17.5 Automotive industry 1.17.6 Textiles/fibers 1.15.7 Medical and pharmaceutical sector 1.15.8 Cosmetics 1.17.9 Outdoor sports 1.17.10 Building/construction industry 1.17.11 Other applications of biopolymers 1.18 Sources of scrap and waste biopolymers References Literature Patents CHAPTER 2 Definitions and assessment of (bio)degradation 2.1 Define the terms 2.2 Classification of biopolymers 2.3 Biopolymers versus oxodegradable polymers 2.4 Types and mechanisms of (bio)degradation 2.4.1 Thermal degradation 2.4.2 Photodegradation 2.4.3 Mechanical degradation2.4.4 Hydrolysis 2.4.5 Biodegradation 2.5 (Bio)degradation testing 2.5.1 Visual examination 2.5.2 Changes in thermo-mechanical and physical properties 2.5.3 Molecular weight 2.5.4 Chemical changes 2.5.5 Hydrolysis 2.5.6 Thermal degradation 2.5.7 Weight loss 2.5.8 Gas (CO2/CH4) evolution 2.5.9 Oxygen consumption 2.5.10 Radiolabeling References Supplementary patents (not relating necessarily to biopolymers)

CHAPTER 3 Reuse 3.1 Recuperation 3.2 Restabilization 3.3 Blending recycled biopolymers with other polymers 3.4 Modification of the chemical structure 3.5 Multiple processing References Patents

CHAPTER 4 Disposal 4.1 General 4.2 Landfilling4.2.1 Pretreatment before disposal 4.3 Biological processes 4.3.1 Aerobic biodegradation 4.3.2 Anaerobic biodegradation 4.3.3 Microbes and enzymes 4.4 (Bio)degradation in water 4.4.1 Hydrolysis 4.4.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis 4.4.3 Wastewater treatment 4.4.4 Marine and fresh water 4.5 Other waste disposal systems 4.6 Destructive thermal processes 4.6.1 Incineration (combustion) 4.6.2 Pyrolysis References Patents Supplementary patents (not relating necessarily to biopolymers)

CHAPTER 5 Physical recycling 5.1 General 5.2 Grinding 5.3 Sorting 5.3.1 Density separation systems 5.3.2 Electrostatic separation systems 5.3.3 Optical systems 5.3.4 Dissolution 5.4 Drying Patents Supplementary patents (not relating necessarily to biopolymers)

CHAPTER 6 Chemical recycling 6.1 Dry-heat depolymerization (in the melt) 6.2 Hydrolysis/Solvolysis (Alcoholysis) 6.2.1 Hydrolysis 6.2.2 Alcoholysis 6.2.3 Foam hydrolysis 6.3 Hydrothermal depolymerization 6.4 Enzymatic depolymerization 6.5 Miscellaneous processes References Patents Supplementary patents (not relating necessarily to biopolymers)

CHAPTER 7 Degradability on demand 7.1 Control of degradation rate 7.2 Suppression of (bio)degradability7.2.1 Control of the physical features of the biopolymer 7.2.2. Modification of the polymer backbone (hydrophobic bonds, grafting) 7.2.3. Functional group-capping agents and catalyst-deactivation agents 7.2.4 Desiccants (blotting compounds) 7.2.5 Antibacterial (antibiotic) compounds 7.2.6 Antioxidants, UV and light stabilizers 7.2.7 Crosslinking 7.2.8 Plasticizers 7.2.9 Blending with other polymers 7.2.10 Physical separation of degradation additives (e.g. by encapsulation or coating) 7.2.11 Coatings 7.2.12 Surface modification 7.3 Promotion of (bio)degradability 7.3.1 Control of the physical features of biopolymer 7.3.2 Modification of the polymer backbone 7.3.3 Enzymes, microbial nutrients 7.3.4 Compounds which can initiate and/or propagate depolymerization 7.3.5 Especially selected additives [e.g. capsules, (nano) particles acting as degradation agents] 7.3.6 Plasticizers 7.3.7 Blending with other polymers 7.3.8 Mixtures of biodegradation promotion and retarding agents 7.3.9 Environmental conditions (temperature, moisture, radiation and time of exposure) 7.3.10 Surface modification References Patents

CHAPTER 8 Developments and trends in patenting 8.1 Biopolymers and patents 8.2 Patent analysis 8.2.1 Distribution of patent applications per category of waste treatment 8.2.2 Geographical distribution of patent applications on waste treatment 8.3 Prospects and limitations of the waste treatment options of biopolymers 8.4 Conclusions 8.5 Development of new waste treatment processes/materials References

CHAPTER 9 Regulatory aspects framework 9.1 Standards 9.1.1 Standards related to the recycling of biopolymers 9.1.2 Standards related to the disposal of biopolymers 9.1.3 Determination of bio-based content 9.1.4 Ecotoxicity 9.1.5 Sample preparation 9.1.6 Terminology 9.1.7 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) related standards 9.1.8 Eco-labeling 9.2 Certification References

CHAPTER 10 Economic evaluation and environmental impacts 10.1 Economic evaluation 10.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 10.2.1 LCA of biopolymers 10.3 Environmental impacts 10.4 Health and safety impacts References

Appendix I: Patents related to recycling, reuse and disposal of biopolymersAppendix II: Patents related to the degradation on demandAppendix III: Supplementary patents (not related necessarily to biopolymers) Appendix IV: Databases consultedAppendix V: Further information sources (organizations, magazine websites, etc.]GlossaryIndex I: List of patent numbersIndex II: List of patent applicants Index III: List of inventorsIndex IV: List of AuthorsIndex V: Keyword index