Biopolymer Applications in 3D Bioprinting for Biomedical Engineering

Part 1: Principle of Biomedical Engineering
1. Physiological System of the Anatomical Structure

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Structure of Bone

1.3 Biological Milieu: Musculoskeletal System and Implants

1.4 Digestive System

1.5 Urinary System

1.6 The Endocrine System

1.7 Immune System

1.8 System Integration and Homeostasis

1.8.1 Hypothalamic, Pituitary, and Adrenal Axis

1.8.2 Renin, Angiotensin, and Aldosterone System

1.8.3 Oxygen Transport and Acid-Base Balance

1.8.4 Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism

1.9 Conclusions
2. Introduction to Biomedical Engineering

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Clinical Challenges and Material Considerations in Bone Tissue Engineering

2.2 Overview of the Multiple Possibilities Offered by Additive Manufacturing

2.2.1 What is Biomedical Engineering?

2.3 Conclusion
3. Physiological System of the Human Body

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Nervous System

3.3 Musculoskeletal System

3.4 Cardiovascular System

3.5 Respiratory System

3.6 Renal System

3.7 Digestive System

3.8 Endocrine System

3.9 Integumentary System

3.10 Immune System

3.11 Reproductive System

3.12 Conclusion
4. Classification of Scaffold Based on Geometry, Biomaterial, and Application

4.1 Introduction

4.2 3-Dimensional Scaffold Requirements

4.2.1 Micro-Architecture/Porosity

4.2.2 Scaffold Biodegradability Criteria

4.2.3 Scaffold Biocompatibility Criteria

4.2.4 Scaffold Bioactivity Criteria

4.2.5 Scaffold Mechanical Properties Criteria

4.3 Categorizing the Scaffold Based on Geometry, Biomaterials, and Application

4.3.1 Porous Scaffolds

4.4 Fibrous Scaffolds

4.5 Scaffolds With Varying Sizes Such as Microspheres/Micro-Particles

4.6 Scaffolds That Are Solid and Free Form

4.7 Classification of Scaffold Based on Biomaterials

4.8 Synthetic Scaffolds Made of Alloplastic Material

4.9 Scaffolds Made of Hydrogels

4.10 Scaffolds Made From Natural Tissue

4.11 Classification of Scaffolds Based on Their Application for Hard Tissues

4.12 Metal Scaffolds for Bone-Tissue Regeneration

4.13 Glass and Glass-Ceramic Scaffolds With Low Degradability Bone Scaffolds

4.14 Scaffolds Made of Polymers

4.15 Polymeric and Other Composite Scaffolds With Particle Loading

4.16 Classification of Scaffolds Based on Their Application for Soft Tissue

4.17 Scaffolds Made of Synthetic Polymers

4.18 Scaffolds Made of Natural Polymers

4.19 Composite Scaffolds and Natural-Synthetic Polymer Blends

4.20 Classification of Scaffolds Based on Cells Covering

4.21 Biomaterials' Issues and Future Opportunities for 3D Scaffolds
5. Innovation and Patent Landscape Analysis of Biopolymers for 3D Bioprinting in Biomedical Applications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Scientific Overview of Different Studied Biopolymers

5.3 Patent Analysis of Biopolymers Used as Biomaterial Inks or Hydrogels for Bioink Formulation

5.3.1 Search Methodology and Data Collection

5.3.2 Patent Documents

5.3.3 Protein-Based Hydrogels

5.3.4 Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels

5.4 Most Relevant Patents in the Area of Biopolymers for 3D Bioprinting

5.5 Conclusions: Remarks and Trends
Part 2: Cell Culture of 3D Bioprinting
6. Biopolymers Derived Glycosaminoglycan and Their Diverse Applications

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Glycosaminoglycans: Classification and Function

6.3 Biological Properties and Functions

6.4 Sources and Methods of Extraction of Glycosaminoglycans

6.5 Characterization of Glycosaminoglycan

6.6 Applications of Biopolymers From Glycosaminoglycans

6.7 Challenges Relating To Biopolymers Derived From Glycosaminoglycan

6.8 Conclusion and Future Directives
7. In Vitro Studies of 3D Bioprinting for Wound Healing Applications

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Wounds

7.3 Wound Healing Process

7.4 Properties of the Ideal Wound Dressing

7.5 Traditional and Modern Wound Dressing

7.6 3D Bioprinting

7.7 Applications

7.8 Characterization of 3D Bioprinted Scaffolds

7.9 Biocompatibility Assays for 3D Bioprinted Scaffolds

7.10 Physical and Mechanical Properties

7.11 Patented Products in the Market

7.12 Challenges

7.13 Future Prospects

7.14 Conclusions
Part 3: Bio-based Polymers in 3D Bioprinting
8. Hydrogel Bioink in Three-Dimensional Bioprinting Technology

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Three-Dimensional Bioprinting: The Cutting-Edge Technology

8.3 Bioink: The Ultimate Determinant of Product Efficacy

8.4 Commonly Used Hydrogel-Assisted Bioprinting

8.5 Complexity Scaffold: The Artificial Extracellular Matrix and Its Biological Properties

8.6 In Vitro-Assisted Revolutionary Usage in the Biomedical Sector

8.7 Future Prospects

8.8 Conclusion
9. Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Approaches Using Glycosaminoglycans for Tissue Engineering and Their Modification

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Chemical Modifications of Glycosaminoglycan

9.3 Physical Processing

9.4 Enzymatic Modifications

9.5 Nanoparticle Incorporation

9.6 Copolymerization

9.7 Design and Fabrication of Glycosaminoglycan-Based Biomaterials

9.8 Biological Interactions and Biocompatibility

9.9 Future Directions and Emerging Trends

9.10 Conclusion
10. Physiochemical and Biological Characteristics of Silk Fibroin, Chitin, and Chitosan in 3D-Bioprinting

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Silk Fibroin

10.3 Chitin and Chitosan

10.4 Conclusion
11. Gellan Gum and Its Derivatives for 3D Biomedical Printing Applications

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Structure Behavior of Gellan Gum in 3D Bioprinting

11.3 Current Status of Gellan Gum Fabrication 3D Bioprinting in Biomedical Applications

11.4 Conclusions

11.5 Acknowledgment
12. Gelatin, Collagen, and Chondroitin Sulfate in 3D Bioprinting

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Principles and Classification

12.3 Classification

12.4 3D Bioprinting of Gelatin, Collagen and Chondroitin Sulfate Hydrogels and Applications

12.5 Collagen

12.6 Chondroitin Sulfate

12.7 Conclusions
13. Collagen, Chondroitin Sulfate, and Gelatin Bioinks for Regenerative Medicine and Cartilage Regeneration

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Gelatin in 3D Bioprinting

13.3 Collagen in 3D Bioprinting

13.4 Chondroitin Sulphate in 3D Bioprinting

13.5 Synergistic Use of Gelatin, Collagen, and Chondroitin Sulphate

13.6 Characterization and Evaluation Techniques

13.7 Applications in Regenerative Medicine

13.8 Conclusion
14. Advanced Bioprinting of Silk Fibroin: Bridging 3D Printing and Biomedical Applications

14.1 Properties of Silk Fibroin

14.2 Preparation of Silk Fibroin-Based Bioinks

14.3 Bioprinting Technologies

14.4 Biomedical Applications

14.5 Summary and Outlook
15. Collagen for Regenerative Applications

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Collagen: A Biomolecule With Incredible Potential

15.3 Fabrication Techniques to Enhance Collagen Applications

15.4 Crosslinking

15.5 Collagen Blend

15.6 Structured Collagen

15.7 Collagen: A Regenerative Protein With Numerous Applications

15.8 Skin Tissue Regeneration

15.9 Cardiac Arteries Regeneration

15.10 Collagen Role Expanded in Regenerative Application

15.11 Conclusion
16. Anionic Polysaccharides for 3D-Bioink in Tissue Engineering

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Anionic Polysaccharides Description

16.3 Application of Anionic Polysaccharides and Derivatives for 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering

16.4 Conclusions
17. Biopolymers Derived From Extracellular Matrix for 3D Bioprinting

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Collagen and Glycosaminoglycans Derivatives in Bioink Formulations

17.3 Collagen

17.4 Gelatin and Derivatives

17.5 Hyaluronic Acid

17.6 Chondroitin Sulfate

17.7 Others Glycosaminoglycans

17.8 Advanced Bioinks for Biologically Functional 3D Bioprinting

17.9 Conclusion
Part 4: Synthetic Polymer in 3D Bioprinting
18. Inorganic Compound Reinforcement in 3D Bioprinting

18.1 Introduction to Inorganic Compound Reinforcement in 3D Bioprinting

18.2 Types of Inorganic Compounds Used in 3D Bioprinting

18.2.1 Natural Bioceramics

18.2.2 Hydroxyapatite

18.2.3 Tricalcium Phosphate

18.2.4 Zirconium Dioxide

18.2.5 Silicon Carbide

18.2.6 Bioactive Glasses

18.2.7 Carbon Based Nano Material

18.2.8 Carbon Dots

18.2.9 Graphene

18.2.10 Carbon Nanofibers

18.3 Mechanisms, Application and Case Studies and Research Highlights of Reinforcement in 3D Bioprinting

18.3.1 Types of Reinforcement in 3D Bioprinting

18.3.2 Interfacial Bonding Between Bioinks and Inorganic Compounds

18.3.3 Impact on Mechanical Properties: Strength, Toughness, and Durability

18.3.4 Influence on Biocompatibility and Bioactivity

18.3.5 Role in Controlling Degradation Rates

18.4 Preparation and Integration of Inorganic Compounds in Bioink

18.4.1 Synthesis and Surface Modification of Inorganic Compounds

18.4.2 Methods for Incorporating Inorganic Compounds Into Bioinks

18.4.3 Optimization of Bioink Properties for 3D Bioprinting

18.5 Challenges and Considerations

18.5.1 Challenges in Achieving Homogenous Distribution of Inorganic Compounds

18.5.2 Potential Cytotoxicity and Biocompatibility Concerns

18.5.3 Balancing Mechanical Properties With Biological Functions

18.5.4 Regulatory and Ethical Considerations in the Use of Inorganic Reinforcements

18.6 Future Directions and Emerging Trends

18.6.1 Innovations in Inorganic Nanocomposites for 3D Bioprinting

18.6.2 Smart Materials and Stimuli-Responsive Inorganic Compounds

18.6.3 Potential for Personalized Medicine Through Customized Reinforcement

18.6.4 The Role of AI in Optimizing the Integration of Inorganic Compounds

18.7 Summary
19. Applications of Synthetic Composites in 3D Bioprinting

19.1 Introduction

19.1.1 3D Bioprinting for Tissue Engineering

19.2 History of 3D Bioprinting

19.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Synthetic Composites

19.3.1 Advantages of Synthetic Composites

19.3.2 Limitations of Synthetic Composites

19.4 Synthetic Composites Used in 3D Bioprinting

19.4.1 Polycaprolactone

19.4.2 Polylactic Acid

19.4.3 Polyglycolic Acid

19.4.4 Polylactic-co-glycolic Acid

19.4.5 Polyethylene Glycol

19.4.6 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

19.4.7 Polyurethane

19.4.8 Polyether Ketone

19.4.9 Composite Hydrogels

19.4.10 Metal-Based Composites

19.5 Properties of Synthetic Composites for 3D Bioprinting

19.5.1 Mechanical Properties

19.5.2 Fatigue Resistance and Creep Behavior

19.5.3 Porosity and Permeability

19.5.4 Biocompatibility

19.5.5 Cytotoxicity and Biodegradability

19.5.6 Immunogenicity and Foreign Body Response

19.5.7 Processability

19.5.8 Printability

19.5.9 Sterilization and Sterilization Compatibility

19.6 Manufacturing Techniques for Synthetic Composites

19.6.1 Extrusion-Based 3D Printing

19.6.2 Inkjet 3D Printing

19.6.3 Stereolithography

19.6.4 Bioplotting

19.7 Application

19.7.1 Bone Tissue Engineering

19.7.2 Cartilage Tissue Engineering

19.7.3 Other Tissue Types (Skin, Muscle, Organoids)

19.7.4 Scaffolds and Implants

19.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives
20. Synthetic Polymers and Composites in 3D Bioprinting

20.1 Introduction

20.1.1 Background

20.1.2 Problem Statement

20.1.3 Literature Review

20.1.4 Safety Considerations and Standards

20.2 Materials and Methods

20.2.1 Method Description

20.2.2 Method Procedure

20.2.3 Materials, Equipment, Apparatus, and Resources

20.2.4 Details of Computational Modeling Resources

20.2.5 Optimization and Troubleshooting

20.3 Formal Analysis and Investigation, Validation, Calculation, and Expression of Results

20.3.1 Formal Analysis and Investigation

20.3.2 Validation, Calculation, and Expression of Results

20.4 Discussion and Evaluation

20.5 Conclusion
21. Synthetic Polymers in 3D Bioprinting

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Fundamentals of Synthetic Polymers

21.2.1 Definition and Classification of Synthetic Polymers

21.2.2 Properties Relevant to Bioprinting

21.2.3 Comparison With Natural Polymers

21.3 Commonly Used Synthetic Polymers in 3D Bioprinting

21.3.1 Polyethylene Glycol

21.3.2 Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)

21.3.3 Poly-capro-lactone

21.3.4 Poly-Lactic Acid

21.3.5 Poly Vinyl Alcohol

21.3.6 Other Polymers

21.4 Polymer Processing Techniques in 3D Bioprinting

21.4.1 Inkjet Bioprinting

21.4.2 Extrusion Based Bioprinting

21.4.3 Stereolithography

21.4.4 Other Emerging Techniques

21.4.5 Magnetic Bioprinting

21.5 Applications of Synthetic Polymers

21.5.1 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

21.5.2 Transplantation and Clinical Applications

21.5.3 Drug Testing and High-Throughput Screening

21.5.4 Cancer Research

21.5.5 Varied Other Applications

21.6 Conclusion/Future Trends or Directions of Bioprinting
22. Bioactive Glass and Reinforcement in 3D Bioprinting

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Special Types of Bioglass as Inorganic Fillers

22.3 Hydrogels

22.3.1 Polysaccharides

22.3.2 Proteins

22.3.3 Synthetic Biopolymers

22.4 Conclusions
Part 5: Applications and Challenges of 3D Bioprinting
23. Advancements in 3D Bioprinting for Soft and Hard Tissues

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Overview of Skin 3D Bioprinting

23.3 Overview of Bioinks in Skin 3D Bioprinting

23.4 Advancements in Skin 3D Bioprinting

23.5 Skin Bioprinting for Disease Models and Drug Development

23.6 Mobile Skin Bioprinting Systems

23.7 Overview of Orthopaedic Grafts

23.8 3D Printing of Bone Scaffolds

23.9 Overview of Cartilage 3D Bioprinting

23.10 Development of Stratified Cartilage Through 3D Bioprinting

23.11 Application in Osteochondral Defect Repairs

23.12 Future Perspectives and Summary
24. Application of 3D Bioprinting in Organs

24.1 Overview of Lung 3D Bioprinting

24.2 Developing New Bioink Formulation for Lung 3D Bioprinting

24.3 Developing In Vitro Lung Models

24.4 Modeling Lung Cancer Using Bioprinted Lung Tissue Construct

24.5 Modeling Air-Pollutant Induced Lung Pathology Using Bioprinted Lung Tissue Construct

24.6 Modeling Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Using Lung Tissue Construct

24.7 Modeling Biofilm-Associated Infection Using Lung Tissue Construct

24.8 Overview of Kidney Bioprinting

24.9 Enhancing Kidney Construct Viability Through Modulation of Bioink

24.10 Enhancing Kidney Construct Viability Through Modulation of Printing Techniques

24.11 Overview of Applications of Bioprinted Kidney Models

24.12 Applications of Bioprinted Kidney Model

24.13 Overview of Vascular Tissue Bioprinting

24.14 Enhancing Vascular Tissue Construct Through Modulation of Bioink

24.15 Enhancing Vascular Tissue Construct Through Modulation of Printing Techniques

24.16 Overview of Cardiac Tissue Bioprinting

24.17 Producing Viable In Vitro Cardiac Tissue Models

24.18 Drug Screening Applications of Cardiac Tissue Construct
25. Advancements in 3D Printing and Bioprinting in Ophthalmology

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Applications in Oculoplastic and Orbital Surgery

25.2.1 Orbital Prosthesis

25.2.2 Orbital Floor Injuries

25.3 Opportunities in Retinal Disease

25.3.1 3D-Printed In Vitro Models

25.3.2 Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) Bioprinting

25.3.3 Therapeutic Applications of Bioprinting

25.4 Applications in Corneal Pathology

25.4.1 Anatomy of the Cornea

25.4.2 Keratoplasty (Corneal Transplantation)

25.4.3 Drug Delivery in Corneal Disease

25.5 Opportunities in Glaucoma Therapeutics

25.5.1 Detection and Monitoring

25.5.2 Drug Delivery in Glaucoma

25.5.3 Surgical Treatment of Glaucoma

25.6 Miscellaneous Applications in Other Ophthalmic Diseases

25.7 Application in Medical Education and Simulation

25.8 Conclusion
26. Pharmaceutical Applications of 3D Printing: Drug Delivery, Discovery, and Development

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Overview of 3D Printing for Drug Delivery

26.3 3D Printing Technologies for Drug Delivery Systems Production

26.4 Advantages of 3D Printed Drug Delivery Systems

26.5 3D Printed Drug Delivery Systems Forms

26.6 Drawbacks of 3D Printing for Drug Delivery Systems Manufacture

26.7 Overview of 3D Bioprinting for Drug Discovery and Development

26.8 Bioprinted Organoids

26.9 Bioprinted Organ-on-a-Chip Systems

26.9.1 Bioprinted Liver-on-a-Chip Models

26.9.2 Bioprinted Kidney-on-a-Chip Models

26.9.3 Bioprinted Multiorgan-on-a-Chip Models

26.10 Conclusions
27. 3D Bioprinting in Drug Delivery and Skin Regeneration

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Classical Approaches to Tissue Engineering

27.3 The Capability of Additive Manufacturing

27.4 The Required Properties of Bio-Printed Skin

27.5 Challenges, Future Directions, and Conclusions

27.6 Limitation and Future Scope

27.7 Conclusion
28. Progress of 3D Bioprinting in Orthodontics

28.1 Introduction

28.2 3D Bioprinting Technologies

28.2.1 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting

28.2.2 Inkjet Bioprinting

28.2.3 Laser-Assisted Bioprinting

28.2.4 Material Considerations

28.3 Applications of 3D Bioprinting in Orthodontics

28.3.1 Custom Aligners and Braces

28.3.2 Tissue Engineering for Periodontics

28.3.3 Regenerative Endodontics

28.3.4 Development of Biocompatible Implants

28.4 Challenges and Limitations of 3D Bioprinting In Orthodontics

28.5 Future Directions

28.6 Conclusion
29. Application-3D Printing and Bioprinting in Oculoplastic, Orbital, Craniofacial, and Maxillofacial Surgery

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Oculoplastic and Orbital Surgery

29.3 Craniofacial and Maxillofacial Surgery

29.4 Use of 3D Printed Anatomical Models in Medical Education and Training

29.5 Ethical and Regulatory Considerations

29.6 Future Directions and Challenges

29.7 Summary
30. Applications, Challenges, and Future Perspectives of Synthetic Polymers and Composites in 3D Bioprinting

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Overview of the Synthetic Polymers and Composites in 3D Bioprinting

30.2.1 Types of Synthetic Polymers

30.2.2 Characterization Methods for 3D Bioprinting

30.2.3 List of Synthetic Polymers in 3D Bioprinting and Biomedical Applications and Their Properties

30.3 Properties and Applications of Synthetic Polymers

30.3.1 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

30.3.2 Polybutylene Terephthalate

30.3.3 Polycaprolactone

30.3.4 Poly-D,L-lactic Acid

30.3.5 Polyether Ether Ketone

30.3.6 Poly Ethylene Glycol

30.3.7 Polyethylene Glycol Diacrylate

30.3.8 Poly-glycolic Acid

30.3.9 Polylactic Acid

30.3.10 Polylactic-co-glycolic Acid

30.3.11 Polypropylene Fumarate

30.3.12 Polyurethane

30.3.13 Polyvinyl Alcohol

30.4 Polymer Composites Polymer Functionalization

30.5 Discussions

30.6 Conclusions
31. Issues and Challenges of 3D Bioprinting Technology

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Background

31.2.1 Principles and Processes Involved in Bioprinting

31.2.2 Procedures Associated With Bioprinting

31.2.3 Developments and Successes in the Field of 3D Bioprinting

31.3 Issues and Challenges

31.4 Conclusions
32. Gellan and Its Derivatives for 3D Bioprinting: A Comprehensive Review

32.1 Introduction

32.2 3D-Bioprinting of Gellan Gum

32.2.1 Techniques and Applications

32.2.2 Rheological and Mechanical Properties of Gellan Gum Derivatives

32.2.3 Biocompatibility and Cell Viability of 3D-Bioprinted Gellan Gum

32.3 Gellan-Based Bioink

32.3.1 Formulation and Optimization

32.3.2 Case Studies and Experimental Findings

32.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment/Funding