Advanced Industrial Carbon Technology
- 1st Edition - September 1, 2026
- Latest edition
- Authors: O. P. Bahl, Swati Sharma, Marc Monthioux
- Language: English
Advanced Industrial Carbon Technology offers a comprehensive overview of modern carbon materials and manufacturing technologies that are highly relevant to industry in the 21st c… Read more
Advanced Industrial Carbon Technology offers a comprehensive overview of modern carbon materials and manufacturing technologies that are highly relevant to industry in the 21st century. It covers detailed preparation methods for various carbon materials, including graphite electrodes, isotropic graphite, non-graphitizable carbon, carbon nanomaterials, and notably, carbon fibers and their composites. It also offers specifications, comparisons, and applications of commercially available carbon materials from leading producers. Emphasis is placed on raw materials, synthesis processes, and necessary modifications to achieve superior quality carbon products. Drawing on extensive academic and industrial experience, the authors share their practical insights, solutions, and contributions to both research-oriented and industrial carbon technologies, providing readers with real-world applications and examples that highlight key concepts in effective technology transfer from academia to industry. This resource serves as a complete guide for beginners and advanced students, scholars, and industry professionals working with technologically significant carbon materials.
- Describes industrial carbon technology with a focus on challenges faced during large-scale manufacturing of carbon materials and their solutions
- Features chronological review of numerous patents, detailing the development of carbon technology and its industrial adaptation
- Includes real-world applications and examples that illustrate crucial concepts behind an efficient technology transfer from academia to industry
Academics and industry professionals working in the field of carbon science and technology; Graduate students as well as newcomers in the field, researchers, and professionals from related sectors seeking comprehensive knowledge on carbon materials
Part 1: Introduction to carbon materials
1. Carbon in the 21st century
2. Introduction to carbon materials: from bulk crystalline solids to nanomaterials
3. Allotropes of carbon
4. Hybridisation
4.1 Diamond: sp3
4.2 Graphite: sp2
4.3 Fullerene: sp(2+n)
4.4 Carbyne: sp
5. Precursors for carbon preparation
5.1 Gaseous precursors: light hydrocarbon
5.2 Solid-state precursors: polymers and high-molecular weight hydrocarbon
5.3 Liquid precursors: pitches
6. Heat-treatment of organic materials
6.1 Pyrolysis
6.2 Carbonisation
6.3 Graphitisation
6.4 Furnaces used in heat-treatment
7 Effect of heat-treatment on properties of carbon
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Iupac recommended terminology
8.2 A multiscale clue for an accurate description of carbon materials
9 General characterisation techniques
9.1 Fundamentals of x-ray diffraction
9.2 Fundamentals of raman spectroscopy
9.3 Fundamentals of electron microscopy
9.4 Fundamentals of gas adsorption isotherms
10 Overview of industrial applications of carbon
11 Conclusions and prospects References
Part 2: Pitches
1. History of tar and pitch evolution
1.1 Wood tar
1.2 Coal tar
1.3 Coal distillation
1.4 Global production of tar
1.5 Toxic effects of tar
2. Production of coal tar pitch
2.1 Sources of impurities in coal tar/ coal tar pitch
2.2 Types and sources of quinoline insoluble (q.i.)
2.3 Role of q.i. In coal tar pitch performance
3. Development of impregnating coal-tar pitch
3.1 Impregnating pitch with low carcinogenic components
3.2 Pitch with high coking value and low softening point
4. Development of impregnating petroleum pitches
5. Mesophase development
5.1 Chemistry of mesophase
5.2 Role of q.i.
5.3 Mesophase as a precursor for developing needle-coke
5.4 Factors affecting the needle-coke quality
5.4.1 Saturates
5.4.2 Aromatics
5.4.3 Resins
6. Pitch shelf-life, storage and transportation
7. Testing of pitches
7.1 Ash
7.2 Softening point
7.3 Density
7.4 Qinoline insolubles (α resins)
7.5 Toluene insolubles
7.6 Viscosity
7.7 Coking value
7.8 Mesophase
7.9 Beta resins
8. Toxic effects of pitch
8.1 Permissible limits of exposure
8.2 Preventive measures
9. Conclusions and prospects References
Part 3: Extruded polycrystalline graphite
1. Background
1.1 Invention of synthetic graphite
1.2 Invention of needle-coke
1.3 Broad application areas of extruded polycrystalline graphite as electrodes
1.4 Evolution of graphite electrodes
2. Fabrication of graphite electrodes
2.1 Raw material/s
2.2 Binder pitch mixing
2.3 Use of additives
2.4 Selection of dry mix composition/glanometry and mixer
2.5 Duration of mixing
2.6 Weight % of the binder pitch
2.7 Extrusion of electrodes
2.8 Role of die design
2.9 Baking
2.10 Impregnation step
2.11 Re-baking
2.12 Graphitisation
2.13 Role of impurities/puffing
3. Future trends
3.1 Heating beyond 1600 oc
3.2 Graphitisation progress follow-up
4. Testing/characterisation of graphite electrodes (astm standards)
4.1 Use in electric arc furnace
4.2 Machining
4.3 Technical specifications of graphite electrodes as given by some of the producers
4.4 Comments/analysis of specifications
5 Conclusions and prospects References
Part 4: Carbon fibres
1. Introduction
2. Pan-based carbon fibres
2.1. Background and history
2.2. Main steps involved in pan processing for making fibres
2.2.1. Process overview
2.2.2. Effect of co-monomers
2.2.2.1. Advantages of using co-monomers
2.2.2.2. Steps involved in making special acrylic fibres (saf)
2.2.3. Growth pattern of special acrylic fibres (saf)
2.2.4. Precursor production
2.2.5. Saf preparation details
2.2.5.1. Solution polymerisation
2.2.5.2. Solvent-water suspension polymerisation
2.2.6. Pan precursor specifications/characteristics
2.3. Spinning of pan fibres
2.3.1. Wet spinning
2.3.2. Dry-jet wet spinning
2.3.3. Dry spinning
2.3.4. Melt spinning
2.3.5. Electrospinning
2.4. Conversion of pan fibres (saf) into carbon fibres
2.4.1 stabilisation of pan fibres
2.4.2. Temperature of treatment and heating rate
2.4.3. Effect of tension during stabilisation
2.4.4. Effect of heating the medium during preoxidation
2.4.5. Stabilisation in so2 instead of air
2.4.6. Taming of the energy required for the conversion of pan fibres to carbon fibres 2.4.7. Relationship between the properties of the precursor and of the related carbon fibres
2.4.8. Rationale for post-spinning modifications
2.4.9. Carbonisation process
2.4.9.1. Carbonisation of first-maxima-preoxidised pan fibres
2.4.9.2. Carbonisation of second-maxima-preoxidised pan fibres
2.4.10. Mass balance
2.4.10.1. During preoxidation
2.4.10.2. During carbonisation (up to 1250 °c)
2.5. Mechanical properties of pan-based carbon fibres
2.5.1. Mechanical testing
2.5.1.1. Background information for brittle materials
2.5.1.2. Testing procedures
2.5.1.3. Tow testing
2.5.2. Mechanical property data
2.6. More about the pan precursor: roads to improvements
2.6.1. Pre-spinning modifications
2.6.1.1. Modification of the pan homo-polymer
2.6.1.2. Modification of the pan co-polymer
2.6.1.3. Modification of the dope
2.6.2. Post-spinning modifications
2.6.2.1. Modifications using coatings
2.6.2.2. Modifications using plasticisers
2.6.2.3. Modifications using catalysts
2.6.2.4. Modifications using combined agents (bi-modification)
2.6.2.5. Other modifications
2.7. Applications of pan-based carbon fibres
3. Cellulose-based carbon fibres
3.1. Background and history
3.2. Viscose rayon as a precursor
3.3. Pyrolysis of viscose rayon fibres
3.3.1. In inert atmosphere
3.3.2. In reactive atmosphere
3.3.3. Impregnation of the precursor
3.3.4. Current approach to the pyrolysis of viscose rayon fibres
3.4. Carbonisation and graphitisation
3.5. Applications of rayon-based carbon fibres
3.5.1. General
3.5.2. As activated carbon fibres
4. Pitch-based carbon fibres
4.1. Background and history
4.2 Isotropic pitch for general purpose carbon fibres
4.2. Preparation of mesophase pitch
4.3. Spinning of mesophase pitch
4.4.1. Role of the die geometry
4.4.2. Role of spinning temperature
4.4.3. Stabilisation of pitch fibres
4.4.3.1. Single-step stabilisation route
4.4.3.2. Two-step/multi-step stabilisation route
4.4.3.3. Stabilisation under pressure
4.4. Carbonisation, graphitisation, and resulting mechanical properties
4.5. Applications of pitch-based carbon fibres
5. Vapour-grown carbon fibres (vgcfs)
5.1 Background and history
5.2 The basics on vgcfs
5.3 Pyrolytic carbon deposition
5.3.1 Principles of the formation mechanisms
5.3.2 Role of the various deposition parameters
5.3.3 Characteristics of pyrolytic carbons
5.4 properties and applications of vgcfs
6. Current trends and prospects
6.1 Current trends and market of carbon fibres
6.2 New routes to high-performance carbon fibres
7. Conclusions References
Part 5: Carbon fibre-based composites
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and history
1.2 Modern carbon-based composites
2. Manufacturing of carbon fibre-based composites
2.1 Surface treatment and sizing
2.2 Weaving and braiding
2.3 Mixing and moulding
2.3.1 Cfrp composite preparation
2.3.2 Cfrc preparation
2.3.3 Cf/metal matrix preparation
2.3.4 Cf/ceramic matrix preparation
2.3.5 Cf/concrete matrix and other composites for civil engineering
2.4 Machining
3. Mechanical properties of cfrps
3.1 Strain to failure
3.2 Compressive failure
3.3 Discontinuous-fibre-based composites
3.4 Effect of temperature
4. Carbon/carbon composites
4.1 Discovery of carbon/ carbon composites
4.2 Comparison of carbon/ carbon composites with other carbon materials
4.2.1 Analogy with carbon fibre-reinforced plastics (cfrps)
4.2.2 Analogy with conventional granular graphite
4.3 Details of processing of carbon/carbon composites
4.3.1 Preform selection
4.3.2 Preparation of the skeleton
4.3.3 Multi-directional weaving of preforms
4.3.4 Densification of the carbon fibre preforms
4.3.5 Role of surface energetics of carbon fibres
4.3.6 Use of pitch as preform-making matrix precursor
4.3.7 Fracture behaviour
4.3.8 Heat treatment to 2500 oc
4.3.9 Densification of two-directional and multi-directional composites
4.4 Role of an additional interphase
4.5 Densification through chemical vapour infiltration (cvi)
4.5.1 Thermal gradient cvi
4.5.2 Forced flow cvi or pressure gradient cvi
4.6 Oxidation resistance of carbon-carbon composites
4.6.1 Chronology/ sequence of oxidation damage
4.6.2 Effect of heat treatment
4.6.3 Basic philosophy of protection from oxidation (oxidation inhibitors/ coating)
5. Applications and state-of-the-art
5.1 Aerospace
5.2 Automobile industry
5.2.1 General
5.2.2 Carbon fibre in electric vehicles
5.3 Wind energy
5.4 Spacecraft and missiles
5.5 Brake pads
5.6 Pressure vessels
5.7 Nuclear energy
5.8 Oil and gas drilling
5.9 Electric transmission lines
5.10 Sporting goods
6. Recent advancements and challenges
7. Conclusions References
Part 6: Isotropic graphites
1. Introduction
1.1 Why isotropic graphite?
1.2 Isotropic graphites - a family of materials
2. Preparation of isotropic graphites
2.1 Development philosophy
2.2 Possible list of raw materials used
2.2.1 Petroleum coke/pitch coke
2.2.2 Self-sintering coke
2.2.3 Needle coke
2.2.4 Microcrystalline graphite – ore processing
2.2.5 Mesocarbon microbeads (detailed processing techniques, shrinkage etc)
3. Classification of isotropic graphites
3.1 Isotropic graphite with high tsr
3.2 Isotropic graphite for nuclear energy
4. Manufacturing of isotropic graphite (flow diagram)
5. Structure of isotropic graphite (datasheets from leading manufacturers)
6. Conclusion and prospects References
Part 7: Non-graphitisable carbons
1. Introduction
1.1 Polymer-derived carbons
1.2 Chemistry of polymer pyrolysis
1.3 Mechanism of carbonisation
1.4 Classification of polymeric carbons
1.5 Graphitisable and non-graphitisable carbons
2. Microstructure of non-graphitisable carbons
2.1 History and microstructural models
2.2 Microstructure-property correlation
2.3 Effect of heat-treatment on microstructure
3 Characterisation of non-graphitisable carbons
3.1 X-ray diffraction
3.2 Electron microscopy
3.3 Raman spectroscopy
3.4 In-situ characterisation methods
4. Glass-like carbons (glassy carbons)
4.1 Industrial relevance and economic impact
4.2 Precursors and their modification
4.3 Manufacturing processes and associated challenges
4.4 Properties
4.4.1 Electrical
4.4.2 Electrochemical
4.4.3 Mechanical
4.4.4 Thermal
4.5 Surface functionalisation methods
4.6 Applications
5. Porous and activated carbons
5.1 Industrial relevance and economic impact
5.2 Precursors: natural and synthetic
5.3 Porosity optimisation (computational methods)
5.4 Activation methods
5.4.1 Physical routes
5.4.2 Chemical routes
5.4.3 Plasma treatment
5.5 Manufacturing processes
5.5.1 Rotary kilns and hearth furnaces
5.5.2 Fluidized-bed reactors
5.6 Surface area and its measurement
5.6.1 Gas absorption isotherms
5.6.2 Non-destructive porosity measurement
5.7 Applications
5.7.1 Porous carbons in water filtration
5.7.2 Porous carbons in biomedical applications
6. Carbon coatings
7. Conclusions and prospects References
Part 8: Carbon nanoforms
1. Introduction
2. Three nanosized dimensions (0d nanoforms)
2.1. Fullerenes (molecular form / nano-objects - allotropes)
2.1.1. Description, and history
2.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms… and more of history
2.1.3. Properties, applications
2.2. “nanohorns”/nanocapsules (molecular forms / nano-objects)
2.2.1. Description, and history
2.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.2.3. Properties, applications
2.3. Concentrically-textured nanoparticles: nano-onions, nano-shells (nano-objects)
2.3.1. Description, and history
2.3.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.3.3. Properties, applications
2.4. Carbon blacks (nano-objects)
2.4.1. Description, and history
2.4.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.4.3. Properties, applications
2.5. Carbon aerogels (possibly nano-objects)
2.5.1. Description, and history
2.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.5.3. Properties, applications
2.6. Radially-textured spheres (micro(nano?)-objects)
2.6.1. Description, and history
2.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.6.3. Properties, applications
2.7. Carbon dots (nano-objects)
2.7.1. Description, and history
2.7.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.7.3. Properties, applications
2.8. Diamondoids (molecular forms / nano-objects)
2.8.1. Description, and history
2.8.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.8.3. Properties, applications
2.9. Nanodiamonds (nano-objects)
2.9.1. Description, and history
2.9.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.9.3. Properties, applications
3. Two nanosized dimensions (1d nanoforms)
3.1. Single-wall carbon nanotubes (molecular form / nano-objects – possibly allotropes)
3.1.1. Description, and history
3.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms, and more of history
3.1.3. Properties, and applications
3.2. Multi-wall carbon nanotubes and nanofibres (nano-objects)
3.2.1. Description, and history
3.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.2.3. Properties, applications
3.3. Meta-carbon-nanotubes (nano-objects)
3.3.1. Doped nanotubes (x:cnts)
3.3.1.1. Description, and history
3.3.1.2. Synthesis
3.3.1.3. Properties, applications
3.3.2. Coated/decorated nanotubes (x/cnts)
3.3.2.1. Description, and history
3.3.2.2. Synthesis
3.3.2.3. Properties, applications
3.3.3. Filled nanotubes (x@cnts)
3.3.3.1. Description, and history
3.3.3.2. Synthesis
3.3.3.3. Properties, applications
3.3.4. Hetero-nanotubes (x*cnts)
3.3.4.1. Description, and history
3.3.4.2. Synthesis
3.3.4.3. Properties, applications
3.3.5. Functionalised nanotubes (x-cnts)
3.3.5.1. Description, and history
3.3.5.2. Synthesis
3.3.5.3. Properties, applications
3.4. Graphenic carbon nano-cones (nano-objects)
3.4.1. Description, and history
3.4.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.4.3. Properties, applications
3.5. Graphene nanoribbons (molecular form / nano-objects)
3.5.1. Description, and history
3.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.5.3. Properties, applications
3.6. Diamond nanothreads (molecular forms / nano-objects)
3.6.1. Description, and history
3.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.6.3. Properties, applications
3.7. Diamond nanorods, nanowires, nanocones, nanoneedles (nano-objects)
3.7.1. Description, and history
3.7.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.7.3. Properties, applications
3.8. Carbyne chains (molecular form – possibly nano-objects and allotropes)
3.8.1. Description, and history
3.8.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.8.3. Properties, applications
4. One nanosized dimension (2d nanoforms)
4.1. (single-layer) graphene (molecular form)
4.1.1. Description, and history
4.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.1.3. Properties, applications
4.2. Multilayer graphene flakes/films/walls (nano-objects)
4.2.1. Description, and history
4.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.2.3. Properties, applications
4.3. Graphene discs and cones (nano-objects)
4.3.1. Description, and history
4.3.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.3.3. Properties, applications
4.4. Meta-graphenes (nano-objects)
4.4.1. Description, and history
4.4.2. Synthesis
4.4.3. Properties, applications
4.5. Ultrathin diamond/diamanoid films (nano-objects)
4.5.1. Description, and history
4.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.5.3. Properties, applications
4.6. Ultrathin amorphous carbon films (nano-objects)
4.6.1. Description, and history
4.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.6.3. Properties, applications
5. Conclusions References
1. Carbon in the 21st century
2. Introduction to carbon materials: from bulk crystalline solids to nanomaterials
3. Allotropes of carbon
4. Hybridisation
4.1 Diamond: sp3
4.2 Graphite: sp2
4.3 Fullerene: sp(2+n)
4.4 Carbyne: sp
5. Precursors for carbon preparation
5.1 Gaseous precursors: light hydrocarbon
5.2 Solid-state precursors: polymers and high-molecular weight hydrocarbon
5.3 Liquid precursors: pitches
6. Heat-treatment of organic materials
6.1 Pyrolysis
6.2 Carbonisation
6.3 Graphitisation
6.4 Furnaces used in heat-treatment
7 Effect of heat-treatment on properties of carbon
8 Nomenclature
8.1 Iupac recommended terminology
8.2 A multiscale clue for an accurate description of carbon materials
9 General characterisation techniques
9.1 Fundamentals of x-ray diffraction
9.2 Fundamentals of raman spectroscopy
9.3 Fundamentals of electron microscopy
9.4 Fundamentals of gas adsorption isotherms
10 Overview of industrial applications of carbon
11 Conclusions and prospects References
Part 2: Pitches
1. History of tar and pitch evolution
1.1 Wood tar
1.2 Coal tar
1.3 Coal distillation
1.4 Global production of tar
1.5 Toxic effects of tar
2. Production of coal tar pitch
2.1 Sources of impurities in coal tar/ coal tar pitch
2.2 Types and sources of quinoline insoluble (q.i.)
2.3 Role of q.i. In coal tar pitch performance
3. Development of impregnating coal-tar pitch
3.1 Impregnating pitch with low carcinogenic components
3.2 Pitch with high coking value and low softening point
4. Development of impregnating petroleum pitches
5. Mesophase development
5.1 Chemistry of mesophase
5.2 Role of q.i.
5.3 Mesophase as a precursor for developing needle-coke
5.4 Factors affecting the needle-coke quality
5.4.1 Saturates
5.4.2 Aromatics
5.4.3 Resins
6. Pitch shelf-life, storage and transportation
7. Testing of pitches
7.1 Ash
7.2 Softening point
7.3 Density
7.4 Qinoline insolubles (α resins)
7.5 Toluene insolubles
7.6 Viscosity
7.7 Coking value
7.8 Mesophase
7.9 Beta resins
8. Toxic effects of pitch
8.1 Permissible limits of exposure
8.2 Preventive measures
9. Conclusions and prospects References
Part 3: Extruded polycrystalline graphite
1. Background
1.1 Invention of synthetic graphite
1.2 Invention of needle-coke
1.3 Broad application areas of extruded polycrystalline graphite as electrodes
1.4 Evolution of graphite electrodes
2. Fabrication of graphite electrodes
2.1 Raw material/s
2.2 Binder pitch mixing
2.3 Use of additives
2.4 Selection of dry mix composition/glanometry and mixer
2.5 Duration of mixing
2.6 Weight % of the binder pitch
2.7 Extrusion of electrodes
2.8 Role of die design
2.9 Baking
2.10 Impregnation step
2.11 Re-baking
2.12 Graphitisation
2.13 Role of impurities/puffing
3. Future trends
3.1 Heating beyond 1600 oc
3.2 Graphitisation progress follow-up
4. Testing/characterisation of graphite electrodes (astm standards)
4.1 Use in electric arc furnace
4.2 Machining
4.3 Technical specifications of graphite electrodes as given by some of the producers
4.4 Comments/analysis of specifications
5 Conclusions and prospects References
Part 4: Carbon fibres
1. Introduction
2. Pan-based carbon fibres
2.1. Background and history
2.2. Main steps involved in pan processing for making fibres
2.2.1. Process overview
2.2.2. Effect of co-monomers
2.2.2.1. Advantages of using co-monomers
2.2.2.2. Steps involved in making special acrylic fibres (saf)
2.2.3. Growth pattern of special acrylic fibres (saf)
2.2.4. Precursor production
2.2.5. Saf preparation details
2.2.5.1. Solution polymerisation
2.2.5.2. Solvent-water suspension polymerisation
2.2.6. Pan precursor specifications/characteristics
2.3. Spinning of pan fibres
2.3.1. Wet spinning
2.3.2. Dry-jet wet spinning
2.3.3. Dry spinning
2.3.4. Melt spinning
2.3.5. Electrospinning
2.4. Conversion of pan fibres (saf) into carbon fibres
2.4.1 stabilisation of pan fibres
2.4.2. Temperature of treatment and heating rate
2.4.3. Effect of tension during stabilisation
2.4.4. Effect of heating the medium during preoxidation
2.4.5. Stabilisation in so2 instead of air
2.4.6. Taming of the energy required for the conversion of pan fibres to carbon fibres 2.4.7. Relationship between the properties of the precursor and of the related carbon fibres
2.4.8. Rationale for post-spinning modifications
2.4.9. Carbonisation process
2.4.9.1. Carbonisation of first-maxima-preoxidised pan fibres
2.4.9.2. Carbonisation of second-maxima-preoxidised pan fibres
2.4.10. Mass balance
2.4.10.1. During preoxidation
2.4.10.2. During carbonisation (up to 1250 °c)
2.5. Mechanical properties of pan-based carbon fibres
2.5.1. Mechanical testing
2.5.1.1. Background information for brittle materials
2.5.1.2. Testing procedures
2.5.1.3. Tow testing
2.5.2. Mechanical property data
2.6. More about the pan precursor: roads to improvements
2.6.1. Pre-spinning modifications
2.6.1.1. Modification of the pan homo-polymer
2.6.1.2. Modification of the pan co-polymer
2.6.1.3. Modification of the dope
2.6.2. Post-spinning modifications
2.6.2.1. Modifications using coatings
2.6.2.2. Modifications using plasticisers
2.6.2.3. Modifications using catalysts
2.6.2.4. Modifications using combined agents (bi-modification)
2.6.2.5. Other modifications
2.7. Applications of pan-based carbon fibres
3. Cellulose-based carbon fibres
3.1. Background and history
3.2. Viscose rayon as a precursor
3.3. Pyrolysis of viscose rayon fibres
3.3.1. In inert atmosphere
3.3.2. In reactive atmosphere
3.3.3. Impregnation of the precursor
3.3.4. Current approach to the pyrolysis of viscose rayon fibres
3.4. Carbonisation and graphitisation
3.5. Applications of rayon-based carbon fibres
3.5.1. General
3.5.2. As activated carbon fibres
4. Pitch-based carbon fibres
4.1. Background and history
4.2 Isotropic pitch for general purpose carbon fibres
4.2. Preparation of mesophase pitch
4.3. Spinning of mesophase pitch
4.4.1. Role of the die geometry
4.4.2. Role of spinning temperature
4.4.3. Stabilisation of pitch fibres
4.4.3.1. Single-step stabilisation route
4.4.3.2. Two-step/multi-step stabilisation route
4.4.3.3. Stabilisation under pressure
4.4. Carbonisation, graphitisation, and resulting mechanical properties
4.5. Applications of pitch-based carbon fibres
5. Vapour-grown carbon fibres (vgcfs)
5.1 Background and history
5.2 The basics on vgcfs
5.3 Pyrolytic carbon deposition
5.3.1 Principles of the formation mechanisms
5.3.2 Role of the various deposition parameters
5.3.3 Characteristics of pyrolytic carbons
5.4 properties and applications of vgcfs
6. Current trends and prospects
6.1 Current trends and market of carbon fibres
6.2 New routes to high-performance carbon fibres
7. Conclusions References
Part 5: Carbon fibre-based composites
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and history
1.2 Modern carbon-based composites
2. Manufacturing of carbon fibre-based composites
2.1 Surface treatment and sizing
2.2 Weaving and braiding
2.3 Mixing and moulding
2.3.1 Cfrp composite preparation
2.3.2 Cfrc preparation
2.3.3 Cf/metal matrix preparation
2.3.4 Cf/ceramic matrix preparation
2.3.5 Cf/concrete matrix and other composites for civil engineering
2.4 Machining
3. Mechanical properties of cfrps
3.1 Strain to failure
3.2 Compressive failure
3.3 Discontinuous-fibre-based composites
3.4 Effect of temperature
4. Carbon/carbon composites
4.1 Discovery of carbon/ carbon composites
4.2 Comparison of carbon/ carbon composites with other carbon materials
4.2.1 Analogy with carbon fibre-reinforced plastics (cfrps)
4.2.2 Analogy with conventional granular graphite
4.3 Details of processing of carbon/carbon composites
4.3.1 Preform selection
4.3.2 Preparation of the skeleton
4.3.3 Multi-directional weaving of preforms
4.3.4 Densification of the carbon fibre preforms
4.3.5 Role of surface energetics of carbon fibres
4.3.6 Use of pitch as preform-making matrix precursor
4.3.7 Fracture behaviour
4.3.8 Heat treatment to 2500 oc
4.3.9 Densification of two-directional and multi-directional composites
4.4 Role of an additional interphase
4.5 Densification through chemical vapour infiltration (cvi)
4.5.1 Thermal gradient cvi
4.5.2 Forced flow cvi or pressure gradient cvi
4.6 Oxidation resistance of carbon-carbon composites
4.6.1 Chronology/ sequence of oxidation damage
4.6.2 Effect of heat treatment
4.6.3 Basic philosophy of protection from oxidation (oxidation inhibitors/ coating)
5. Applications and state-of-the-art
5.1 Aerospace
5.2 Automobile industry
5.2.1 General
5.2.2 Carbon fibre in electric vehicles
5.3 Wind energy
5.4 Spacecraft and missiles
5.5 Brake pads
5.6 Pressure vessels
5.7 Nuclear energy
5.8 Oil and gas drilling
5.9 Electric transmission lines
5.10 Sporting goods
6. Recent advancements and challenges
7. Conclusions References
Part 6: Isotropic graphites
1. Introduction
1.1 Why isotropic graphite?
1.2 Isotropic graphites - a family of materials
2. Preparation of isotropic graphites
2.1 Development philosophy
2.2 Possible list of raw materials used
2.2.1 Petroleum coke/pitch coke
2.2.2 Self-sintering coke
2.2.3 Needle coke
2.2.4 Microcrystalline graphite – ore processing
2.2.5 Mesocarbon microbeads (detailed processing techniques, shrinkage etc)
3. Classification of isotropic graphites
3.1 Isotropic graphite with high tsr
3.2 Isotropic graphite for nuclear energy
4. Manufacturing of isotropic graphite (flow diagram)
5. Structure of isotropic graphite (datasheets from leading manufacturers)
6. Conclusion and prospects References
Part 7: Non-graphitisable carbons
1. Introduction
1.1 Polymer-derived carbons
1.2 Chemistry of polymer pyrolysis
1.3 Mechanism of carbonisation
1.4 Classification of polymeric carbons
1.5 Graphitisable and non-graphitisable carbons
2. Microstructure of non-graphitisable carbons
2.1 History and microstructural models
2.2 Microstructure-property correlation
2.3 Effect of heat-treatment on microstructure
3 Characterisation of non-graphitisable carbons
3.1 X-ray diffraction
3.2 Electron microscopy
3.3 Raman spectroscopy
3.4 In-situ characterisation methods
4. Glass-like carbons (glassy carbons)
4.1 Industrial relevance and economic impact
4.2 Precursors and their modification
4.3 Manufacturing processes and associated challenges
4.4 Properties
4.4.1 Electrical
4.4.2 Electrochemical
4.4.3 Mechanical
4.4.4 Thermal
4.5 Surface functionalisation methods
4.6 Applications
5. Porous and activated carbons
5.1 Industrial relevance and economic impact
5.2 Precursors: natural and synthetic
5.3 Porosity optimisation (computational methods)
5.4 Activation methods
5.4.1 Physical routes
5.4.2 Chemical routes
5.4.3 Plasma treatment
5.5 Manufacturing processes
5.5.1 Rotary kilns and hearth furnaces
5.5.2 Fluidized-bed reactors
5.6 Surface area and its measurement
5.6.1 Gas absorption isotherms
5.6.2 Non-destructive porosity measurement
5.7 Applications
5.7.1 Porous carbons in water filtration
5.7.2 Porous carbons in biomedical applications
6. Carbon coatings
7. Conclusions and prospects References
Part 8: Carbon nanoforms
1. Introduction
2. Three nanosized dimensions (0d nanoforms)
2.1. Fullerenes (molecular form / nano-objects - allotropes)
2.1.1. Description, and history
2.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms… and more of history
2.1.3. Properties, applications
2.2. “nanohorns”/nanocapsules (molecular forms / nano-objects)
2.2.1. Description, and history
2.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.2.3. Properties, applications
2.3. Concentrically-textured nanoparticles: nano-onions, nano-shells (nano-objects)
2.3.1. Description, and history
2.3.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.3.3. Properties, applications
2.4. Carbon blacks (nano-objects)
2.4.1. Description, and history
2.4.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.4.3. Properties, applications
2.5. Carbon aerogels (possibly nano-objects)
2.5.1. Description, and history
2.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.5.3. Properties, applications
2.6. Radially-textured spheres (micro(nano?)-objects)
2.6.1. Description, and history
2.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.6.3. Properties, applications
2.7. Carbon dots (nano-objects)
2.7.1. Description, and history
2.7.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.7.3. Properties, applications
2.8. Diamondoids (molecular forms / nano-objects)
2.8.1. Description, and history
2.8.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.8.3. Properties, applications
2.9. Nanodiamonds (nano-objects)
2.9.1. Description, and history
2.9.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
2.9.3. Properties, applications
3. Two nanosized dimensions (1d nanoforms)
3.1. Single-wall carbon nanotubes (molecular form / nano-objects – possibly allotropes)
3.1.1. Description, and history
3.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms, and more of history
3.1.3. Properties, and applications
3.2. Multi-wall carbon nanotubes and nanofibres (nano-objects)
3.2.1. Description, and history
3.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.2.3. Properties, applications
3.3. Meta-carbon-nanotubes (nano-objects)
3.3.1. Doped nanotubes (x:cnts)
3.3.1.1. Description, and history
3.3.1.2. Synthesis
3.3.1.3. Properties, applications
3.3.2. Coated/decorated nanotubes (x/cnts)
3.3.2.1. Description, and history
3.3.2.2. Synthesis
3.3.2.3. Properties, applications
3.3.3. Filled nanotubes (x@cnts)
3.3.3.1. Description, and history
3.3.3.2. Synthesis
3.3.3.3. Properties, applications
3.3.4. Hetero-nanotubes (x*cnts)
3.3.4.1. Description, and history
3.3.4.2. Synthesis
3.3.4.3. Properties, applications
3.3.5. Functionalised nanotubes (x-cnts)
3.3.5.1. Description, and history
3.3.5.2. Synthesis
3.3.5.3. Properties, applications
3.4. Graphenic carbon nano-cones (nano-objects)
3.4.1. Description, and history
3.4.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.4.3. Properties, applications
3.5. Graphene nanoribbons (molecular form / nano-objects)
3.5.1. Description, and history
3.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.5.3. Properties, applications
3.6. Diamond nanothreads (molecular forms / nano-objects)
3.6.1. Description, and history
3.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.6.3. Properties, applications
3.7. Diamond nanorods, nanowires, nanocones, nanoneedles (nano-objects)
3.7.1. Description, and history
3.7.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.7.3. Properties, applications
3.8. Carbyne chains (molecular form – possibly nano-objects and allotropes)
3.8.1. Description, and history
3.8.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
3.8.3. Properties, applications
4. One nanosized dimension (2d nanoforms)
4.1. (single-layer) graphene (molecular form)
4.1.1. Description, and history
4.1.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.1.3. Properties, applications
4.2. Multilayer graphene flakes/films/walls (nano-objects)
4.2.1. Description, and history
4.2.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.2.3. Properties, applications
4.3. Graphene discs and cones (nano-objects)
4.3.1. Description, and history
4.3.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.3.3. Properties, applications
4.4. Meta-graphenes (nano-objects)
4.4.1. Description, and history
4.4.2. Synthesis
4.4.3. Properties, applications
4.5. Ultrathin diamond/diamanoid films (nano-objects)
4.5.1. Description, and history
4.5.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.5.3. Properties, applications
4.6. Ultrathin amorphous carbon films (nano-objects)
4.6.1. Description, and history
4.6.2. Synthesis, formation mechanisms
4.6.3. Properties, applications
5. Conclusions References
- Edition: 1
- Latest edition
- Published: September 1, 2026
- Language: English
OB
O. P. Bahl
Dr. Om P. Bahl is currently the President of the Indian Carbon Society and an Emeritus Scientist in the Carbon Technology Unit at the Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research–National Physical Laboratory (CSIR–NPL), New Delhi. He has served on the Board of Directors of HEG Ltd and has been an R&D advisor to major scientific institutions and industries. Dr. Bahl served the United Nations as Chief Technical Advisor in Brazil in 1981 and as a UN Expert in Bulgaria, Romania, and Poland in 1988 and 1989.
He has edited several books, published numerous research articles, and successfully developed and transferred various carbon-related technologies to reputable carbon industries in India. He holds eleven patents for various carbon-related technologies.
Affiliations and expertise
Emeritus Scientist, Carbon Technology Unit at the Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research–National Physical Laboratory (CSIR–NPL), IndiaSS
Swati Sharma
Dr. Swati Sharma is an Assistant Professor in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Mandi. Before joining IIT Mandi in 2019, she spent over five years as a Scientist and Group Leader at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and the University of Freiburg in Germany. She earned her M.S. and Ph.D. from the University of California, Irvine, USA, in 2013. Prior to that, she worked as a Researcher at UNIST, South Korea, for one year. She completed her B.E. (Hons.) in Chemical Engineering at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India, in 2004, and subsequently worked as a Research Scientist for over four years at Ranbaxy Research Laboratories, Gurgaon.
Her current research focuses on carbon materials and manufacturing, including the development of a new microstructural model for non-graphitizing carbons and the confirmation of fullerenes within this class of carbon materials.
Affiliations and expertise
Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Mandi, IndiaMM
Marc Monthioux
Dr. Marc Monthioux is Research Director Emeritus at CNRS and currently works at the Center for the Preparation of Materials and Structural Studies (CEMES) in Toulouse, France. He has decades of experience in the synthesis, characterization, and applications of various carbon materials, including natural sources like kerogens and coals, as well as technological materials such as fibers, composites, fullerenes, nanotubes, graphene, and diamane.
Dr. Monthioux has collaborated with numerous international companies and is Honorary Editor of Carbon and Advisory Editor of Carbon Trends (Elsevier). He is a former chairman of the French Carbon Society and the European Carbon Association. He hosted the World Conference on Carbon in 2009 and received the European Carbon Association Award in 2022.Affiliations and expertise
Research Director, CNRS, France