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Treatise on Geophysics
2nd Edition - April 17, 2015
Editor: Gerald Schubert
Hardback ISBN:9780444538024
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 5 3 8 0 2 - 4
eBook ISBN:9780444538031
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 5 3 8 0 3 - 1
Treatise on Geophysics, Second Edition, Eleven Volume Set is a comprehensive and in-depth study of the physics of the Earth beyond what any geophysics text has provided… Read more
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Treatise on Geophysics, Second Edition, Eleven Volume Set is a comprehensive and in-depth study of the physics of the Earth beyond what any geophysics text has provided previously. Thoroughly revised and updated, it provides fundamental and state-of-the-art discussion of all aspects of geophysics. A highlight of the second edition is a new volume on Near Surface Geophysics that discusses the role of geophysics in the exploitation and conservation of natural resources and the assessment of degradation of natural systems by pollution. Additional features include new material in the Planets and Moon, Mantle Dynamics, Core Dynamics, Crustal and Lithosphere Dynamics, Evolution of the Earth, and Geodesy volumes. New material is also presented on the uses of Earth gravity measurements. This title is essential for professionals, researchers, professors, and advanced undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of Geophysics and Earth system science.
Comprehensive and detailed coverage of all aspects of geophysics
Fundamental and state-of-the-art discussions of all research topics
Integration of topics into a coherent whole
Professionals, researchers, professors, and advanced undergraduate and graduate students working in the fields of geophysics, earth system science, geology, geomagnetism, ocean science, planetary and aerospace science, environmental science, seismology, petrology, mining and construction, urban planning, plus more.
Preface
Editor-in-Chief
Permission Acknowledgments
Volume 1: Deep Earth Seismology
1.01. Deep Earth Seismology: An Introduction and Overview
Abstract
1.01.1 Developments from the Late Nineteenth Century until the Early 1950s
1.01.2 Developments from 1950s to the Early 1980s
1.01.3 From 1980 to Present: The Era of Tomography and Broadband Digital Seismic Networks
1.01.4 Current Issues in Global Tomography
References
Relevant Website
1.02. Theory and Observations - Instrumentation for Global and Regional Seismology
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.02.1 Introduction
1.02.2 Seismic Signals and Noise
1.02.3 Seismometers and Systems
References
Further Reading
1.03. Theory and Observations - Earth's Free Oscillations
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.03.1 Introduction
1.03.2 Equations of Motion and Hamilton's Principle
1.03.3 Spherical Harmonics and Generalized Spherical Harmonics
1.03.4 The Green's Function for the Spherically Symmetric Earth
1.03.5 Numerical Solution of the Radial Equations
1.03.6 Elastic Displacement as a Sum Over Modes
1.03.7 The Normal Mode Spectrum
1.03.8 Normal Modes and Theoretical Seismograms in Three-Dimensional Earth Models
1.03.9 Concluding Discussion
References
1.04. Theory and Observations: Normal Mode and Surface Wave Observations
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.04.1 Introduction
1.04.2 Free Oscillations
1.04.3 Surface Waves
1.04.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Relevant Website
1.05. Theory and Observations: Body Waves, Ray Methods, and Finite-Frequency Effects
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.05.1 Introduction
1.05.2 Ray Theory
1.05.3 Rays at Interfaces
1.05.4 Ray Seismograms
1.05.5 Finite-Frequency Effects
1.05.6 Discussion
1.05.7 Conclusion
References
1.06. Theory and Observations: Forward Modeling: Synthetic Body Wave Seismograms
Abstract
1.06.1 Introduction
1.06.2 Plane Wave Modeling
1.06.3 Structural Effects
1.06.4 Modeling Algorithms and Codes
1.06.5 Parameterization of the Earth Model
1.06.6 Instrument and Source
1.06.7 Heterogeneity, Attenuation, and Anisotropy
1.06.8 Conclusions
References
1.07. Theory and Obeservations - Forward Modeling and Synthetic Seismograms, 3D Numerical Methods
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.07.1 Introduction
1.07.2 The Challenge
1.07.3 Equation of Motion
1.07.4 Strong Implementations
1.07.5 Weak Implementations
1.07.6 Discussion and Conclusions
References
1.08. Theory and Observations - Seismology and the Structure of the Earth: Teleseismic Body-Wave Scattering and Receiver-Side Structure
Abstract
1.08.1 Introduction
1.08.2 Geometrical Preliminaries
1.08.3 Source Removal
1.08.4 1-D Inversion
1.08.5 Multidimensional Inversion
1.08.6 Beyond the Born Approximation
1.08.7 Conclusions
References
1.09. Theory and Observations - Seismic Anisotropy
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.09.1 Introduction
1.09.2 Basic Theory of Seismic Anisotropy
1.09.3 Seismological Observations of Anisotropy
1.09.4 Perspectives
References
1.10. Theory and Observations - Seismic Tomography and Inverse Methods
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.10.1 Introduction to Seismic Tomography
1.10.2 Data Types in Seismic Tomography
1.10.3 Model Parameterization
1.10.4 Model Solution
1.10.5 Solution Quality
1.10.6 Future Directions
References
1.11. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Global Crustal Structure
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.11.1 Introduction, Purpose, and Scope
1.11.2 Geology, Tectonics, and Earth History
1.11.3 Seismic Techniques for Determining the Structure of the Crust and Uppermost Mantle
1.11.4 Nonseismic Constraints on Crustal Structure
1.11.5 Structure of Oceanic Crust and Continental Margins
1.11.6 Structure of Continental Crust
1.11.7 Global Crustal Models
1.11.8 Discussion and Conclusions
References
1.12. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Seismic Imaging and Monitoring with Ambient Noise Correlations
Abstract
1.12.1 Introduction
1.12.2 Noise Origin
1.12.3 Principle of the Method: The Heuristic Approach
1.12.4 Mathematical Results
1.12.5 Practical Limitations
1.12.6 Processing
1.12.7 Applications
1.12.8 Conclusions
References
1.13. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Seismic Structure of Mid-Ocean Ridges
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.13.1 Introduction
1.13.2 Mantle Upwelling and Melting Beneath Oceanic Spreading Centers
1.13.3 Formation of Oceanic Crust
1.13.4 Remaining Unsolved Problems
References
1.14. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Swells
Abstract
Acknowledgment
1.14.1 Introduction to Hot Spots
1.14.2 Types of Hot Spots
1.14.3 Geophysical Characteristics of Hot Spots
1.14.4 Seismic Constraints on Crust and Lithosphere
1.14.5 Conclusions
References
1.15. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Active Source Studies of Crust and Lithospheric Structure
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.15.1 Introduction
1.15.2 Vertical-Incidence and Wide-Angle Seismology
1.15.3 Background
1.15.4 Reflection Seismology
1.15.5 The CMP Method in Reflection Seismology
1.15.6 Migration
1.15.7 Reflection Seismology Examples
1.15.8 Refraction/Wide-Angle Seismology
1.15.9 Wide-Angle Seismology Experiments
1.15.10 Data Processing
1.15.11 Model Dimension
1.15.12 Forward Modeling
1.15.13 Traveltime Inversion and Tomography: Theory and Practical Issues
1.15.14 Traveltime Inversion and Tomography: Algorithms
1.15.15 Amplitude Modeling
1.15.16 S-Waves, Density, Attenuation, and Anisotropy
1.15.17 Fine-Scale Heterogeneities
1.15.18 Joint Inversion
1.15.19 Model Assessment
1.15.20 Wide-Angle Migration
1.15.21 Wavefield Inversion
1.15.22 Wavefield Inversion Examples
1.15.23 Future Directions
References
Relevant Website
1.16. Crust and Lithospheric Structure – Natural Source Portable Array Studies of the Continental Lithosphere
Abstract
1.16.1 Introduction
1.16.2 Natural Source Portable Array Seismology
1.16.3 Seismic Structure of Tectonically Active Regions
1.16.4 Stable Platforms
1.16.5 Archean Cratons
1.16.6 Seismic Constraints on Composition and Temperature of the Continental Lithosphere
1.16.7 EarthScope, USArray, and the Future of Portable Array Seismology
1.16.8 Discussion
References
Relevant Websites
1.17. Crustal and Lithospheric Structures Between the Alps and East European Craton from Long-Range Controlled Source Seismic Experiments
Abstract
1.17.1 Introduction: Regional Geologic/Tectonic Setting of Central Europe
1.17.2 A New Generation of Long-Range Seismic Experiments
1.17.3 Characteristics of the Seismic Wavefields along Profiles for Different Tectonic Provinces (Terranes)
1.17.4 Examples of 2-D and 3-D Modeling of the Earth's Crust and Lower Lithosphere
1.17.5 Geotectonic Models of the Transition from the EEC to the Eastern Alps, Carpathians, and Pannonian Basin
1.17.6 Summary
References
1.18. Crust and Lithospheric Structure - Seismological Constraints on the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.18.1 Definitions of the Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
1.18.2 Origins of the Seismological Lithosphere–Asthenosphere Boundary
1.18.3 Imaging the Seismological LAB
1.18.4 The Seismological LAB Beneath Oceans
1.18.5 The Seismological LAB Beneath Continents
1.18.6 Conclusions
References
1.19. Deep Earth Structure - Upper Mantle Structure: Global Isotropic and Anisotropic Elastic Tomography
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.19.1 Introduction
1.19.2 Effects of Seismic Velocity and Anisotropy on Seismograms
1.19.3 Upper Mantle Tomography of Seismic Velocity and Anisotropy
1.19.4 Geodynamic Applications
1.19.5 Numerical Modeling and Perspectives
Appendix Effect of Anisotropy on Surface Waves in the Plane-Layered Medium
References
Relevant Websites
1.20. Deep Earth Structure - Subduction Zone Structure in the Mantle Transition Zone
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.20.1 Introduction
1.20.2 Global View of Subduction Zone Structure in the Transition Zone
1.20.3 Slab Signatures Above and Below the 660-km Discontinuity
1.20.4 Seismic Images of Slab Descent Through the Transition Zone
1.20.5 Summary
References
1.21. Deep Earth Structure - Transition Zone and Mantle Discontinuities
Abstract
Acknowledgment
1.21.1 Introduction
1.21.2 The Mantle Transition Zone
1.21.3 The Gutenberg Discontinuity (LAB)
1.21.4 The Lehmann Discontinuity
1.21.5 The Hales Discontinuity
1.21.6 Conclusions
References
Glossary
1.22. Deep Earth Structure: Lower Mantle and D″
Abstract
Acknowledgment
1.22.1 Lower Mantle and D″ Basic Structural Attributes
1.22.2 One-Dimensional Lower Mantle Structure
1.22.3 Three-Dimensional Lower Mantle Structure
1.22.4 D″ Region
1.22.5 D″ Discontinuities
1.22.6 Large Low-Shear-Velocity Provinces
1.22.7 Ultralow-Velocity Zones
1.22.8 Lower Mantle Anisotropy
1.22.9 Small-Scale Heterogeneities
1.22.10 Conclusions
References
Glossary
1.23. Deep Earth Structure: The Earth’s Cores
Abstract
1.23.1 Introduction
1.23.2 The Discovery of the Core
1.23.3 Investigation Tools
1.23.4 Radial Structure of the Core in Global Earth Models
1.23.5 The Major Discontinuities
1.23.6 The Liquid Outer Core
1.23.7 The Inner Core: Seismic Velocities
1.23.8 The Inner Core: Seismic Attenuation
1.23.9 Inner Core: Differential Rotation with Respect to the Mantle
1.23.10 Conclusion
References
1.24. Deep Earth Structure: Seismic Scattering in the Deep Earth
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.24.1 Introduction
1.24.2 Scattering Theory
1.24.3 Scattering Observations
1.24.4 Discussion
References
1.25. Deep Earth Structure: Q of the Earth from Crust to Core
Abstract
Acknowledgment
1.25.1 Introduction
1.25.2 Early Studies
1.25.3 Frequency Dependence of Q
1.25.4 1D Global Mantle Q Models
1.25.5 Q in the Core
1.25.6 Global 3D Attenuation Structure in the Upper Mantle
1.25.7 Regional Q Variations in the Crust and Uppermost Mantle
1.25.8 Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
1.26. Constraints on Seismic Models from Other Disciplines - Constraints from Mineral Physics on Seismological Models
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.26.1 Introduction
1.26.2 Mineral Elasticity
1.26.3 Rock Elasticity
1.26.4 Seismological Elasticity and Anelasticity
1.26.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
1.27. Constraints on Seismic Models from Other Disciplines - Constraints on 3-D Seismic Models from Global Geodynamic Observables: Implications for the Global Mantle Convective Flow
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1.27.1 Introduction
1.27.2 Geodynamic Observables and Mantle Flow Theory
1.27.3 Modeling Geodynamic Observables with Seismic Tomography
1.27.4 Joint Seismic–Geodynamic Inversions for 3-D Structure and Flow in the Mantle
1.27.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Volume 2: Mineral Physics
2.01. Mineral Physics: An Introduction and Overview
Abstract
References
2.02. Mineralogy of the Earth: Phase Transitions and Mineralogy of the Upper Mantle
Abstract
Acknowledgment
2.02.1 Introduction
2.02.2 Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Upper Mantle
2.02.3 Experimental Petrology and the Mineralogical Composition of the Earth's Upper Mantle
2.02.4 Phase Transitions in Dry Earth's Upper Mantle
2.02.5 Mineralogy and Transitions in the Upper Mantle at Subduction Zones
2.02.6 Conclusions
References
2.03. Phase Transitions and Mineralogy of the Lower Mantle
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.03.1 Introduction
2.03.2 Experimental and Theoretical Backgrounds
2.03.3 Mineral Phase Transitions in the Lower Mantle
2.03.4 Phase Transitions and Density Changes in Mantle and Slab Materials
2.03.5 Mineralogy of the Lower Mantle
2.03.6 Summary
References
2.04. Mineralogy of the Earth: Trace Elements and Hydrogen in the Earth's Transition Zone and Lower Mantle
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.04.1 Introduction
2.04.2 Crystal–Melt Partition Coefficients and Controlling Factors
2.04.3 Implications for Planetary Differentiation and Trace Element Distribution in the Deep Mantle
2.04.4 Water in the Deep Mantle
2.04.5 Conclusions
References
2.05. Mineralogy of the Deep Mantle – The Post-Perovskite Phase and its Geophysical Significance
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.05.1 Lower Mantle Mineralogy
2.05.2 Post-Perovskite Phase
2.05.3 D″ Region and Evidence for Post-Perovskite
2.05.4 Transport Properties
2.05.5 Geodynamic Consequences of Post-Perovskite
2.05.5 Conclusions
References
Glossary
2.06. Earth's Core: Iron and Iron Alloys
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.06.1 Introduction
2.06.2 Seismological Observations of Earth's Core
2.06.3 The Structure and Anisotropy of Iron in the Inner Core
2.06.4 Thermoelastic Properties of Solid Iron
2.06.5 The Temperature in Earth's Core
2.06.6 Physical Properties of Liquid Iron
2.06.7 Evolution of the Core
2.06.8 The Composition of the Core
2.06.9 Summary
References
2.07. Mineralogy of Super-Earth Planets
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.07.1 Introduction
2.07.2 Overview of Super-Earths
2.07.3 Theoretical and Experimental Techniques for Ultrahigh-Pressure Research
2.07.4 Equations of State
2.07.5 Mineralogy at Super-Earth Interior Conditions
2.07.6 Physical Properties of Minerals at Super-Earth Conditions
2.07.7 Summary and Outlook
References
2.08. Thermodynamics, Phase Transitions, Equations of State, and Elasticity of Minerals at High Pressures and Temperatures
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.08.1 Thermodynamics of Crystals
2.08.2 Equations of State and Elasticity
2.08.3 Phase Transitions of Crystals
2.08.4 A Few Examples of the Discussed Concepts
References
2.09. Lattice Vibrations and Spectroscopy of Mantle Phases
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Outline
References
2.10. Multi-Anvil Cells and High Pressure Experimental Methods
Abstract
2.10.1 Introduction
2.10.2 Multi-anvil Apparatuses
2.10.3 High-Pressure and High-Temperature Synthesis Experiments
2.10.4 In Situ x-Ray Observations Using SR
2.10.5 New Applications
2.10.6 Future Perspectives
References
2.11. Theory and Practice: Diamond-Anvil Cells and Probes for High-P–T Mineral Physics Studies
Abstract
2.11.1 Diamond-Anvil Cell as a Window to the Earth's Interior
2.11.2 Generation and Characterization of High Pressures
2.11.3 Temperature
2.11.4 Optical Probes
2.11.5 x-Ray Probes
References
2.12. Theory and Practice: Techniques for Measuring High-P–T Elasticity
Abstract
Acknowledgment
2.12.1 Introduction
2.12.2 Static Compression
2.12.3 Ultrasonic Methods
2.12.4 Light Scattering Techniques
2.12.5 Inelastic x-Ray Scattering
2.12.6 Shock Waves
2.12.7 Other Techniques
References
2.13. Measuring High-Pressure Electronic and Magnetic Properties
Abstract
Abbreviations
Acknowledgment
2.13.1 Introduction
2.13.2 Overview of Fundamentals
2.13.3 Electronic and Magnetic Excitations
2.13.4 Overview of Experimental Techniques
2.13.5 Selected Examples
2.13.6 Conclusions
References
Glossary
2.14. Methods for the Study of High P–T Deformation and Rheology
Abstract
2.14.1 Introduction
2.14.2 Importance of High-Pressure Rheology Measurements
2.14.3 High-Pressure Tools
2.14.4 New Insights
2.14.5 Conclusion
References
2.15. The Ab Initio Treatment of High-Pressure and High-Temperature Mineral Properties and Behavior
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.15.1 Introduction
2.15.2 First-Principles Techniques
2.15.3 Mineral Properties and Behavior
2.15.4 Conclusions
References
2.16. Dynamic Compression
Abstract
2.16.1 Dynamic Compression Versus Static Compression
2.16.2 Experimental Methods
2.16.3 Geophysical Applications
2.16.4 Future Prospects
References
2.17. Seismic Properties of Rocks and Minerals, and the Structure of Earth
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.17.1 Introduction
2.17.2 Radial Structure
2.17.3 Lateral Heterogeneity
2.17.4 Anisotropy
2.17.5 Attenuation and Dispersion
2.17.6 Conclusions
References
2.18. Constitutive Equations, Rheological Behavior, and Viscosity of Rocks
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.18.1 Introduction
2.18.2 Role of Lattice Defects in Deformation
2.18.3 Mechanisms of Deformation and Constitutive Equations
2.18.4 Upper Mantle Viscosity
2.18.5 Concluding Remarks
References
2.19. Properties of Rocks and Minerals – Diffusion, Viscosity, and Flow of Melts
Abstract
2.19.1 Mass and Momentum Transport in Melts: Georelevance
2.19.2 Dynamics and Relaxation in Melts
2.19.3 Diffusion in Melts
2.19.4 Melt Rheology
2.19.5 Viscosity of Liquids
2.19.6 Concluding Statement
References
2.20. Seismic Anisotropy of the Deep Earth from a Mineral and Rock Physics Perspective
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.20.1 Introduction
2.20.2 Mineral Physics
2.20.3 Rock Physics
2.20.4 Conclusions
References
2.21. Properties of Rocks and Minerals: Physical Origins of Anelasticity and Attenuation in Rock
Abstract
Nomenclature
2.21.1 Introduction
2.21.2 Theoretical Background
2.21.3 Insights from Laboratory Studies of Geologic Materials
2.21.4 Geophysical Implications
2.21.5 Summary and Outlook
References
2.22. Properties of Rocks and Minerals, High-Pressure Melting
Abstract
2.22.1 Melting Properties of Lower Mantle Components
2.22.2 Melting of (Mg,Fe)SiO3-PV
2.22.3 Melting of MgO
2.22.4 Partial Melting in the Lower Mantle
2.22.5 Shock-Wave Measurements
2.22.6 Iron at the Earth's Core Conditions
References
2.23. Thermal Conductivity of the Earth
Abstract
Acknowledgments
2.23.1 Introduction
2.23.2 Theory of Heat Flow in Minerals and Rocks
2.23.3 Experimental Methods for the Lattice Contribution
2.23.4 The LFA Database on Lattice Transport for Geomaterials
2.23.5 Thermal Diffusivity of Magnesium Silicate Perovskite at Temperature and Pressure
2.23.6 Lattice Thermal Conductivity and Its Temperature Dependence
2.23.7 Conclusions
References
2.24. Magnetic Properties of Rocks and Minerals
Abstract
2.24.1 Introduction
2.24.2 Magnetism at the Atomic Length Scale
2.24.3 Magnetism at the Nanometer Length Scale
2.24.4 Magnetism at the Micrometer Length Scale
2.24.5 Magnetism at the Macroscopic Length Scale
2.24.6 Summary
References
2.25. Properties of Rocks and Minerals – The Electrical Conductivity of Rocks, Minerals, and the Earth
Abstract
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
2.25.1 Introduction
2.25.2 Electrical Conductivity of Materials
2.25.3 High-Pressure Studies
2.25.4 Electrical Conductivity of Melts and Partial Melts
2.25.5 Mixing Relationships
2.25.6 Application to MT Studies
2.25.7 Summary
References
Glossary
Volume 3: Geodesy
3.01. Geodesy: An Introduction and Overview
Abstract
3.01.1 Introduction
3.01.2 Coordinate Systems
3.01.3 Geodetic Methods
3.01.4 Error Sources, Signals, and Noise
3.01.5 Conclusions
References
3.02. Potential Theory and the Static Gravity Field of the Earth
Abstract
3.02.1 Introduction
3.02.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation
3.02.3 Boundary-Value Problems
3.02.4 Solutions to the Spherical BVP
3.02.5 Low-Degree Harmonics: Interpretation and Reference
3.02.6 Methods of Determination
3.02.7 The Geoid and Heights
References
3.03. Gravimetric Methods – Absolute and Relative Gravity Meter: Instruments Concepts and Implementation
3.12.4 A Best-Practices Guide to Using InSAR and Related Observations
3.12.5 The Link Between Science and Mission Design
Appendix A
References
3.13. Geodetic Imaging Using Optical Systems
Abstract
3.13.1 Introduction
3.13.2 Principles
3.13.3 Background Information on Optical Sensing Systems
3.13.4 Matching Techniques
3.13.5 Geometric Modeling and Processing of Passive Optical Images
3.13.6 Applications to Coseismic Deformation
3.13.7 Applications to Geomorphology and Glacier Monitoring
3.13.8 Conclusion
References
Volume 4: Earthquake Seismology
4.01. Earthquake Seismology: An Introduction and Overview
Abstract
4.01.1 Introduction
4.01.2 Seismicity
4.01.3 The Earthquake Source
4.01.4 Slip Behavior
4.01.5 Physics of the Earthquake Source
4.01.6 State of Stress, Nucleation, and Triggering
4.01.7 Associated Problems
4.01.8 Earthquake Risk Mitigation
4.01.9 Conclusions
References
4.02. Seismic Source Theory
Abstract
Acknowledgments
4.02.1 Introduction
4.02.2 Seismic Wave Radiation from a Point Force: The Green Function
4.02.3 Moment Tensor Sources
4.02.4 Finite Source Models
4.02.5 Crack Models of Seismic Sources
4.02.6 Conclusions
References
4.03. Fracture and Frictional Mechanics: Theory
Abstract
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
4.03.1 Introduction
4.03.2 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
4.03.3 The Governing Equations
4.03.4 Exact Solutions for Quasistatic Two-Dimensional Planar Cracks
4.03.5 Shear Cracks Governed by Rate-and-State Friction Laws
4.03.6 Dynamic Effects
4.03.7 Fracture Energy
4.03.8 Coupling between Elastodynamics and Shear Heating
4.03.9 Conclusions
References
4.04. Applications of Rate- and State-Dependent Friction to Models of Fault-Slip and Earthquake Occurrence
Abstract
4.04.1 Fault-Slip Phenomena
4.04.2 Rate- and State-Dependent Friction
4.04.3 Models of Sliding Phenomena
4.04.4 Earthquake Nucleation
4.04.5 Seismicity Rate Models
4.04.6 Stress Changes Estimated from Earthquake Rates
4.04.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
4.05. The Mechanics of Frictional Healing and Slip Instability During the Seismic Cycle
Abstract
Acknowledgments
4.05.1 Introduction
4.05.2 Laboratory Experiments
4.05.3 Laboratory Data
4.05.4 Analysis and Discussion
4.05.5 Conclusions
References
4.06. Mechanisms for Friction of Rock at Earthquake Slip Rates
Abstract
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
4.06.1 Introduction
4.06.2 Dynamic Fault-Weakening Mechanisms
4.06.3 Friction Resulting from High-Speed Weakening Mechanisms
4.06.4 Implications of Low Dynamic Friction for Earthquake Stress Drops and for Orientations and Magnitudes of Tectonic Stress
4.06.5 Conclusions
References
4.07. The Role of Fault-Zone Drilling
Abstract
4.07.1 Introduction: Why Drill to Study Earthquakes?
4.07.2 Fluids and Faulting
4.07.3 Frictional Strength of Faults
4.07.4 Near-Field Observations of Earthquake Nucleation and Propagation
4.07.5 Fault-Zone Drilling Projects
4.07.6 Summary
References
4.08. Dynamic Shear Rupture in Frictional Interfaces: Speeds, Directionality, and Modes
Abstract
Acknowledgments
4.08.1 Introduction
4.08.2 Experimental Techniques for Creating Earthquakes in the Laboratory
4.08.3 Supershear and Sub-Rayleigh to Supershear Transition in Homogeneous Fault Systems
4.08.4 Directionality of Ruptures Along Faults Separating Weakly Dissimilar Materials: Supershear and Generalized Rayleigh Wave Speed Ruptures
4.08.5 Observing Crack-Like, Pulse-Like, Wrinkle-Like, and Mixed Rupture Modes in the Laboratory
References
4.09. Slip Inversion
Abstract
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
4.09.1 Introduction
4.09.2 Construction of Slip Inversion Problem
4.09.3 Solving Inverse Problem
4.09.4 Example of Slip Model
4.09.5 Extended Studies Based on Slip Models
4.09.6 Discussion and Conclusion
References
4.10. Fault Interaction, Earthquake Stress Changes, and the Evolution of Seismicity
Acknowledgment
4.10.1 Introduction
4.10.2 Stress I
No. of pages: 5604
Language: English
Published: April 17, 2015
Imprint: Elsevier
Hardback ISBN: 9780444538024
eBook ISBN: 9780444538031
GS
Gerald Schubert
Gerald Schubert is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences at the University of California, Los Angeles. His research interests encompass the physics of the interiors and atmospheres of the Earth, the Moon, and the other moons and planets of the solar system. He is co-author with Donald Turcotte of Geodynamics (ed. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2014) and with Turcotte and Peter Olson of Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets (Cambridge University Press, 2001). He is the author of over 540 research papers. He has participated in a number of NASA’s planetary missions, including Apollo, Pioneer Venus, Magellan, and Galileo, and has been editor and editorial board member of many journals, including Icarus, Journal of Geophysical Research, Geophysical Research Letters, and Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Professor Schubert is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a recipient of the Union’s James B. MacElwane medal and the Harry H. Hess medal. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Affiliations and expertise
Professor Emeritus, Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences , UCLA, USA