Treatise on Geomorphology

Editor-In-Chief

Volume Editors

Preface

Foreword

Permission Acknowledgments

Volume 1: The Foundations of Geomorphology

Introduction

1.1 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

1.1.1 Introduction to Geomorphology

1.1.2 Establishment of the Discipline

1.1.3 Cycle and Process: Early and Middle Twentieth-Century Trends

1.1.4 Climate and Humans: Late Twentieth and Early Twenty-First-Century Trends

1.1.5 Historical and Conceptual Foundations

References

The History of Geomorphology

1.2 The Scientific Roots of Geomorphology before 1830

Glossary

1.2.1 Introduction

1.2.2 The Distant Past

1.2.3 Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, 1600–1830

1.2.4 Roots in Historical Earth Science, 1600–1830

1.2.5 Roots in Classical Mechanics, 1600–1830

1.2.6 Prospects for Geomorphology after 1830

1.2.7 Conclusion

References

1.3 Major Themes in British and European Geomorphology in the Nineteenth Century

Glossary

1.3.1 Introduction

1.3.2 The Glacial Theory: A Preposterous Notion

1.3.3 Beyond the Ice Sheets: The Seeds of Climatic Geomorphology and Climate Change

1.3.4 River Valleys and the Power of Fluvial Denudation

1.3.5 The Decay of Rocks

1.3.6 Mountain-Building

1.3.7 Conclusion

References

1.4 Geomorphology and Nineteenth-Century Explorations of the American West

Glossary

1.4.1 Introduction

1.4.2 Pre-Nineteenth Century

1.4.3 Lewis and Clark

1.4.4 Fur Trappers and Traders

1.4.5 Army Topographers

1.4.6 Geographical and Geological Field Surveys

1.4.7 G.K. Gilbert

1.4.8 Concluding Comments

References

1.5 Geomorphology in the First Half of the Twentieth Century

Glossary

1.5.1 Introduction

1.5.2 William Morris Davis and a Paradigm for Geomorphology

1.5.3 Davisian Reasoning

1.5.4 Articulation of the Davisian Paradigm

1.5.5 Tectonic Considerations in Relation to Davisian Theory

1.5.6 Local Opposition to Davis

1.5.7 Davisian Doctrines Applied Overseas: Some Examples

1.5.8 German Opposition to Davisian Ideas: Walther Penck’s Alternative

1.5.9 Germany and America: Differences of Opinion

1.5.10 Lester King in Africa: Davis Rewritten

1.5.11 Periglacial Geomorphology

1.5.12 The Beginnings of Quantitative and Experimental Geomorphology

1.5.13 Stream Patterns and Drainage Development

1.5.14 Landforms Produced by Etching

1.5.15 The Movement of Sand and Soil by Wind: Bagnold’s Investigations

1.5.16 Conclusion

References

1.6 The Mid-Twentieth Century Revolution in Geomorphology

Glossary

1.6.1 Introduction

1.6.2 The Quantitative Revolution

1.6.3 The Process Revolution

1.6.4 Theoretical Reappraisals

1.6.5 The Plate-Tectonic Revolution

1.6.6 The Climate-Change Revolution

1.6.7 The Revolution in Geochronology

1.6.8 Conclusion

References

1.7 Geomorphology in the Late Twentieth Century

Glossary

1.7.1 Introduction

1.7.2 New Technologies in Geomorphology

1.7.3 Process Geomorphology

1.7.4 Landscape Development and Tectonic Geomorphology

1.7.5 Chaos, Self-Organized Criticality, and Non-linear Dynamic Systems

1.7.6 Connecting to Ecology: Biogeomorphology

1.7.7 Conclusions

References

Changing Concepts and Paradigms

1.8 Philosophy and Theory in Geomorphology

1.8.1 Introduction

1.8.2 Distinguishing between Philosophy and Theory

1.8.3 Approaching Geomorphology

1.8.4 The Two Geomorphologies Problem

1.8.5 The Geomorphic Frame of Systems Analysis

References

1.9 Spatial and Temporal Scales in Geomorphology

Abbreviations

1.9.1 Introduction

1.9.2 Changing Foci of Time and Space

1.9.3 Conceptualizing Time and Space in Geomorphology

1.9.4 Spacetime Scales: Where and How Do We Go From Here?

1.9.5 Conclusion

References

1.10 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology

Glossary

1.10.1 Introduction

1.10.2 Tectonism and Tectonic Change

1.10.3 Weather, Climate, and Climate Change

1.10.4 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology: Spatial Considerations

1.10.5 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology: Temporal Changes since 300 Ma

1.10.6 Geomorphic Feedbacks to Climate and Tectonism

1.10.7 Conclusion

References

1.11 Process in Geomorphology

Glossary

1.11.1 Introduction

1.11.2 Conceptions of Process at the Inception of Geomorphology

1.11.3 Evolving Conceptions of Process in Geomorphology

1.11.4 Strahler and the Foundation of the Process Paradigm

1.11.5 Systems and Process

1.11.6 The Mechanics and Mathematics of Process

1.11.7 Elaboration of the Process Paradigm

1.11.8 Philosophical Perspectives on Process

1.11.9 Conclusion

References

1.12 Denudation, Planation, and Cyclicity: Myths, Models, and Reality

Glossary

1.12.1 Introduction

1.12.2 Denudation: Foundations of the Concept before 1830

1.12.3 Planation: A Prolonged Debate, 1830–1960

1.12.4 Cyclicity in Geomorphology

1.12.5 The Quest for Reality

1.12.6 Conclusion

References

1.13 Sediments and Sediment Transport

Glossary

1.13.1 Introduction

1.13.2 Key Concepts

1.13.3 The Properties of Sediment

1.13.4 Initiation of Sediment Motion

1.13.5 Sediment Transport

1.13.6 Conclusions

References

1.14 Systems and Complexity in Geomorphology

Glossary

1.14.1 The Complexity of Landscapes

1.14.2 Early Work on Systems and Complexity

1.14.3 Systems and Complexity in Geomorphology

1.14.4 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

1.15 Geomorphology and Late Cenozoic Climate Change

Glossary

1.15.1 Introduction

1.15.2 Climatic Geomorphology

1.15.3 Late Cenozoic Climates and Climate Change

1.15.4 Marine Archives

1.15.5 Ice-Core Archives

1.15.6 Lake Archives

1.15.7 Aeolian Archives

1.15.8 Relevance of Climate Archives to Geomorphology

1.15.9 Conclusion

References

Investigative Traditions and Changing Technologies

1.16 The Field, the First, and Latest Court of Appeal: An Australian Cratonic Landscape and its Wider Relevance

1.16.1 Introduction

1.16.2 Bornhardts and Associated Features

1.16.3 Domical Bornhardts and the Origin and Age of Sheet Fractures

1.16.4 Other Aspects of Bornhardts

1.16.5 Flared Slopes and their Significance

1.16.6 Age Considerations

1.16.7 Conclusions

References

1.17 Laboratory and Experimental Geomorphology: Examples from Fluvial and Aeolian Systems

Glossary

1.17.1 Philosophical Basis

1.17.2 Origin and Evolution of Hardware Modeling of Fluvial and Aeolian Systems

1.17.3 Advantages of Hardware Models over Field Experiments

1.17.4 Challenges in Scaling Laboratory Experiments

1.17.5 The Nuts and Bolts of Hardware Simulation in Geomorphology

1.17.6 Transformative Concepts

1.17.7 The Future of Experimentation in Geomorphology

1.17.8 Concluding Remarks

References

1.18 Present Research Frontiers in Geomorphology

Glossary

1.18.1 Introduction

1.18.2 Research at the Interface of Geomorphology and Ecology

1.18.3 Integrative Thinking – Earth System Science and Landscape Evolution

1.18.4 Geospatial Data Applications

1.18.5 Dealing with Threats to Coastal Environments: Better Understanding of Coastal Processes and Geomorphology

1.18.6 Aeolian Research: New Impetus, New Technologies, and an Emerging Force

1.18.7 Dating Agencies: Advances in Methods and Data Handling

1.18.8 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

1.19 Geomorphology for Future Societies

Glossary

1.19.1 Introduction

1.19.2 Geomorphology Past and Present

1.19.3 The Future I: Environmental Challenges to Society

1.19.4 The Future II: The Research Role of Geomorphology

1.19.5 The Future III: Applied Geomorphology

1.19.6 Conclusion

References

Volume 2: Quantitative Modeling of Geomorphology

2.1 Quantitative Modeling of Geomorphology

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Structure of this Volume

Acknowledgments

References

Fundamental Aspects

2.2 Nine Considerations for Constructing and Running Geomorphological Models

Glossary

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2 Model Construction

2.2.3 Running the Model

2.2.4 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

2.3 Fundamental Principles and Techniques of Landscape Evolution Modeling

Glossary

2.3.1 Fundamental Processes and Equations

2.3.2 Solution Methods

2.3.3 Conclusions

References

2.4 A Community Approach to Modeling Earth- and Seascapes

Glossary

2.4.1 Background

2.4.2 Concept of a Community Modeling System

2.4.3 Open-Source and Readily Available Code

2.4.4 Community Modeling and the CSDMS Approach

2.4.5 Challenges

2.4.6 Summary

References

Relevant Websites

2.5 Which Models Are Good (Enough), and When?

2.5.1 Introduction

2.5.2 What Does It Mean for a Model to be Wrong?

2.5.3 What Makes a Model Rigorous?

Acknowledgment

References

Innovative Methods

2.6 Statistical Methods for Geomorphic Distribution Modeling

Glossary

2.6.1 Introduction

2.6.2 Modeling Steps

2.6.3 Review of Statistical Methods

2.6.4 SWOT Analysis of Statistical Modeling in Geomorphology

2.6.5 Future Challenges

References

2.7 Genetic Algorithms, Optimization, and Evolutionary Modeling

2.7.1 Introduction

2.7.2 Genetic Algorithms

2.7.3 GAs in Geomorphology

2.7.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

2.8 Nonlocal Transport Theories in Geomorphology: Mathematical Modeling of Broad Scales of Motion

Glossary

2.8.1 Introduction

2.8.2 Mathematical Background

2.8.3 Superdiffusion in Tracer Dispersal

2.8.4 Nonlocal Theories of Sediment Transport on Hillslopes

2.8.5 Nonlocal Landscape Evolution Models

2.8.6 Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

2.9 Cellular Automata in Geomorphology

Glossary

2.9.1 Introduction

2.9.2 Basis of the Automata Modeling System

2.9.3 Relationship to Other Geomorphology Modeling Systems

2.9.4 Development of Cellular Automata Use in Geomorphology

2.9.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

2.9.6 Issues in Implementation

2.9.7 The Place of Cellular Automata in the Scientific Nature of Geomorphology

References

Geomorphic Modeling from Soil to Landscape

2.10 Hillslope Soil Erosion Modeling

Glossary

2.10.1 The Basis of Soil Erosion Modeling

2.10.2 Why Model Soil Erosion?

2.10.3 Classification of Soil Erosion Models

2.10.4 Empirical Models

2.10.5 Process-Based Models

2.10.6 Scales of Model Application

2.10.7 Temporal Scales

2.10.8 Spatial Scales

2.10.9 The Scaling Question

2.10.10 Hillslope-Scale Soil Erosion Models

2.10.11 An Example of a Hillslope Erosion Model – The WEPP

2.10.12 Erosion Model Implementation and Assessment

2.10.13 Sensitivity Analysis

2.10.14 Model Evaluation

2.10.15 The Future of Hillslope Soil Erosion Modeling

References

Relevant Websites

2.11 Process-Based Sediment Transport Modeling

Glossary

2.11.1 Introduction

2.11.2 The Basis of a Process Sediment Transport Modeling System

2.11.3 The Concept of Mass and Momentum Equations in Sediment Transport Modeling

2.11.4 The Spatial Dimensionality of Different Process Sediment Transport Models

2.11.5 Using an Eulerian or Lagrangian Framework to Build a Sediment Transport Model

2.11.6 Discrete Particle Modeling

2.11.7 The Prescription of Boundary Conditions for Sediment Transport Models

2.11.8 The Assessment of a Sediment Transport Model: Considering the Concepts of Validation and Verification

2.11.9 Discussion

References

2.12 Morphodynamic Modeling of Rivers and Floodplains

2.12.1 Introduction

2.12.2 High Resolution Physics-Based River Models

2.12.3 Network Models of Meander Migration

2.12.4 Cellular Models of Braided Rivers

2.12.5 Models of River Long Profile Evolution

2.12.6 Floodplain Sedimentation Models

2.12.7 Coupled Models of Channel-Floodplain Evolution and Alluvial Architecture

2.12.8 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

2.13 Quantitative Modeling of Landscape Evolution

Glossary

2.13.1 Introduction

2.13.2 Recent Reviews of Quantitative Landscape Evolution Modeling

2.13.3 Quantitative Models of Landscape Evolution: Concepts and Definitions

2.13.4 Landscape Evolution Model Studies

2.13.5 The Future of Landscape Evolution Modeling

References

2.14 Modeling Ecogeomorphic Systems

Glossary

2.14.1 Introduction

2.14.2 Ecogeomorphological Modeling of Fluvial Channel Systems

2.14.3 Ecogeomorphological Modeling of Catchments

2.14.4 Ecogeomorphological Modeling of Semi-Arid Systems with Patterned Vegetation

2.14.5 Ecogeomorphological Modeling of Tidal Wetlands

2.14.6 Ecogeomorphological Models of Vegetated Dune Evolution

2.14.7 Conclusions

References

Volume 3: Remote Sensing and GIScience in Geomorphology

3.1 Remote Sensing and GIScience in Geomorphology: Introduction and Overview

Glossary

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Geospatial Technology and Fieldwork

3.1.3 Remote Sensing and Geomorphology

3.1.4 GIS and Geomorphology

3.1.5 Conclusions

References

3.2 Ground, Aerial, and Satellite Photography for Geomorphology and Geomorphic Change

Glossary

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Data Acquisition

3.2.3 Image Interpretation

3.2.4 Conclusions

References

Relevant Websites

3.3 Microwave Remote Sensing and Surface Characterization

Glossary

3.3.1 Types of Microwave Sensors

3.3.2 Microwave Remote-Sensing Principles

3.3.3 Altimeters

3.3.4 Synthetic-Aperture Radars

3.3.5 Stereo SAR

3.3.6 Interferometric SAR

3.3.7 Summary

References

3.4 Remote Sensing of Land Cover Dynamics

3.4.1 Introduction

3.4.2 Remote Sensing of Land Cover

3.4.3 Case Studies

3.4.4 Land-Cover Change Modeling

3.4.5 Future Research Directions

References

3.5 Near-Surface Geophysics in Geomorphology

Abbrevations

3.5.1 Introduction

3.5.2 Gravity

3.5.3 Magnetics

3.5.4 Resistivity and EM Methods

3.5.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

3.5.6 Seismic Methods

3.5.7 Combining Geophysical Methods

3.5.8 Discussion and Conclusions

References

3.6 Digital Terrain Modeling

Glossary

3.6.1 Introduction

3.6.2 Background

3.6.3 DTM Representation

3.6.4 Data Sources

3.6.5 Preprocessing

3.6.6 DTM Error Assessment

3.6.7 Geomorphological Applications

3.6.8 Conclusions

References

3.7 Geomorphometry

Glossary

3.7.1 Introduction

3.7.2 Digital Terrain Modeling

3.7.3 Land-Surface Parameters

3.7.4 Land-Surface Objects and Landforms

3.7.5 Conclusions

References

3.8 Remote Sensing and GIScience in Geomorphological Mapping

Glossary

3.8.1 Introduction

3.8.2 Background

3.8.3 Glacial Landscapes and Landforms

3.8.4 Volcanic Terrain and Landforms

3.8.5 Landslide Mapping

3.8.6 Fluvial Landscapes and Landforms

3.8.7 Conclusion

References

3.9 GIS-Based Soil Erosion Modeling

Symbols

Glossary

3.9.1 Introduction

3.9.2 Background

3.9.3 Foundations in Erosion Modeling

3.9.4 Simplified Models of Erosion Processes

3.9.5 GIS Implementation

3.9.6 Case Studies

3.9.7 Conclusion and Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

3.10 Remote Sensing and GIS for Natural Hazards Assessment and Disaster Risk Management

Glossary

3.10.1 Introduction

3.10.2 Background

3.10.3 Hazard Assessment

3.10.4 Elements-At-Risk and Vulnerability

3.10.5 Multi-Hazard Risk Assessment

3.10.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

3.11 Geovisualization

Glossary

3.11.1 Introduction

3.11.2 Background

3.11.3 Visual Processing

3.11.4 Visual Interaction

3.11.5 Visual Outputs

3.11.6 Conclusions

References

Volume 4: Weathering and Soils Geomorphology

4.1 Overview of Weathering and Soils Geomorphology

4.1.1 Previous Major Works in Weathering and Soils Geomorphology

4.1.2 What Constitutes Weathering Geomorphology?

4.1.3 Major Themes, Current Trends, and Overview of the Text

4.1.4 Conclusion

References

4.2 Synergistic Weathering Processes

Glossary

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 Getting to the Heart of Weathering and Its Synergies

4.2.3 Scale Issues and Understanding Weathering Synergies

4.2.4 Concepts to Help Understand Weathering Synergies across Scales

4.2.5 Weathering Process Synergies

References

4.3 Pedogenesis with Respect to Geomorphology

Glossary

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 Pedogenic Processes

4.3.3 Pedogenesis and Landscape Evolution

4.3.4 Soil Chronosequences

4.3.5 Soils as Indicators of Landscape Stability

4.3.6 Soils and Climate Change

4.3.7 Soil-Slope Relationships

4.3.8 Hillslope/Soil Process Interaction

4.3.9 Soils and Sedimentation

4.3.10 Conclusions

References

4.4 Nanoscale: Mineral Weathering Boundary

Glossary

4.4.1 Introduction to Nanoscale Weathering

4.4.2 Nanoscale Techniques for Geomorphologists

4.4.3 Applying Nanoscale Strategies to Contemporary Issues in Geomorphic Weathering

4.4.4 Conclusion

References

4.5 Rock Coatings

Glossary

4.5.1 Introduction to Rock Coatings

4.5.2 Interpreting Rock Coatings through a Landscape Geochemistry Approach

4.5.3 Importance of Rock Coatings in Geomorphology

4.5.4 Conclusion

References

4.6 Weathering Rinds: Formation Processes and Weathering Rates

Glossary

4.6.1 Introduction

4.6.2 Previous Research on Weathering Rinds

4.6.3 Temporal Changes in Rock Properties

4.6.4 Formation Processes of Weathering Rinds

4.6.5 A Porosity Concerned Model of Weathering Rind Development

4.6.6 Conclusions

References

4.7 Tafoni and Other Rock Basins

Glossary

4.7.1 Introduction

4.7.2 Morphological Classification and Rate of Development

4.7.3 Stages of Tafone Development

4.7.4 Stages of Gnamma Progression

4.7.5 Processes of Development

4.7.6 Summary

References

4.8 Weathering Mantles and Long-Term Landform Evolution

4.8.1 Introduction

4.8.2 Weathering Mantles and How They Form

4.8.3 Deep Weathering Through Geological Time

4.8.4 Etching and Stripping

4.8.5 Geomorphological Signatures of Etchsurfaces

4.8.6 Conclusions

References

4.9 Catenas and Soils

Glossary

4.9.1 Introduction

4.9.2 The Catena Concept

4.9.3 Elements and Characteristics of Catenas

4.9.4 Soil Variation on Catenas – Why?

4.9.5 Soil Drainage Classes along Catenas

4.9.6 The Edge Effect

4.9.7 Summary

References

4.10 Weathering and Hillslope Development

4.10.1 Introduction

4.10.2 Fundamentals

4.10.3 Weathering and Rock Slope Evolution

4.10.4 Deep Weathering and Landslides

4.10.5 Weathering and Slope Landforms

4.10.6 Conclusions

References

4.11 Weathering in the Tropics, and Related Extratropical Processes

Glossary

4.11.1 Overview

4.11.2 Weathering Processes and Their Relation to Tropical Conditions

4.11.3 Weathering-Related Landforms of the Tropics

4.11.4 Conclusion

References

4.12 Weathering in Arid Regions

Glossary

4.12.1 Introduction

4.12.2 Climate and Weathering – Presumed Connections and Observed Disparities

4.12.3 Nature and Complexity of Weathering Processes

4.12.4 The Desert Weathering System

4.12.5 Inheritance and the Concept of Palimpsest

4.12.6 Conclusion

References

4.13 Coastal Weathering

4.13.1 Introduction

4.13.2 Marine Salt in the Coastal Environment

4.13.3 Weathering Processes Facilitated by the Coastal Environment

4.13.4 Coastal Landforms Associated with Weathering

4.13.5 Conclusion

References

4.14 Chemical Weathering in Cold Climates

Glossary

4.14.1 Introduction

4.14.2 Chemical Weathering Processes

4.14.3 Bedrock Weathering

4.14.4 Rock Coatings

4.14.5 Soil Development in Cold Climates

4.14.6 Chemical Weathering in Glacial and Proglacial Environments

4.14.7 Chemical Denudation in Arctic and Alpine Environments

4.14.8 Conclusions

References

4.15 Mechanical Weathering in Cold Regions

Glossary

4.15.1 Introduction

4.15.2 Weathering Processes in Cold Regions

4.15.3 Landforms

4.15.4 Where are We at and Where are We Going?

References

4.16 Soil Chronosequences

Glossary

4.16.1 Introduction

4.16.2 Soil Characteristics Supporting Chronosequence Development

4.16.3 Issues Complicating the Development and Use of Chronosequences

4.16.4 Chronosequence Applications

4.16.5 Summary and Conclusion

References

4.17 Weathering and Sediment Genesis

Glossary

4.17.1 Weathering, Sediments, and the Rock Cycle

4.17.2 Processes: Disintegration and Chemical Alteration

4.17.3 Factors of Weathering Relevant to Sediment Production

4.17.4 Sediment Maturity and Weathering in Transport

4.17.5 Types of Sediment

4.17.6 The Role of Weathering in Cementing Sediment

4.17.7 Summary

References

Volume 5: Tectonic Geomorphology

5.1 Dedication to Dr. Kurt Lang Frankel

References

5.2 Tectonic Geomorphology: A Perspective

Glossary

5.2.1 Introduction

5.2.2 Development of Tectonic Geomorphology and Advances Related to the Discipline

5.2.3 Recent Research Foci (Subdisciplines)

5.2.4 Future Advances

Acknowledgments

References

5.3 Continental–Continental Collision Zone

Glossary

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 Southern Alps of New Zealand

5.3.3 Africa–Europe Collision

5.3.4 Arabia–Eurasia Collision

5.3.5 India–Asia Collision

5.3.6 Ancient Orogens

5.3.7 Conclusion

References

5.4 Transform Plate Margins and Strike–slip Fault Systems

Glossary

5.4.1 Introduction

5.4.2 General Tectonic Setting

5.4.3 Advances in Studying Continental Transform Systems

5.4.4 Major Continental Transform Plate Boundaries and Strike–slip Fault Systems

5.4.5 Important Questions and Future Directions

5.4.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

5.5 Tectonic Geomorphology of Passive Margins and Continental Hinterlands

5.5.1 Introduction

5.5.2 Igneous and Tectonic Processes Associated with Rifting

5.5.3 Prerifting Continental Topography and Elevation

5.5.4 Postrifting Evolution of Marginal Escarpments

5.5.5 Evolution of Continental Hinterlands

5.5.6 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Relevant Website

5.6 Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence

Glossary

5.6.1 An Introduction to Surface and Deep Features of High Plateaus

5.6.2 Evidence for Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence

5.6.3 Tectonic Mechanisms and Associated Surface Uplift Rates for Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence

5.6.4 Plateau Uplift and Global Climate Change

5.6.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

5.7 Tectonic Geomorphology of Active Folding and Development of Transverse Drainages

Glossary

5.7.1 Introduction

5.7.2 Lateral Propagation of Reverse Faults and Related Folds

5.7.3 Geomorphic Evidence of Lateral Fold Propagation

5.7.4 Geomorphic Methods to Analyze Laterally Propagating Folds

5.7.5 Santa Ynez Mountains

5.7.6 Complex Lateral Propagation

5.7.7 Development of Transverse Drainage

5.7.8 Directivity of Earthquake Energy and Lateral Fold Propagation: A Hypothesis of Tectonic Extrusion

5.7.9 Conclusions

References

5.8 Volcanic Landforms and Hazards

Glossary

5.8.1 Introduction

5.8.2 Tectonic Settings

5.8.3 Variety of Volcanic Landforms

5.8.4 Evolving Volcanic Landforms

5.8.5 Ancient Volcanic Settings

5.8.6 Volcanic Hazards

5.8.7 Future Challenges in the Study of Volcanic Landforms and Hazards

Acknowledgments

References

5.9 Hot Spots and Large Igneous Provinces

Glossary

5.9.1 Introduction

5.9.2 Hot Spot Volcanic Chains

5.9.3 Hot Spot Volcanoes

5.9.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

5.10 Tectonic Geomorphology of Normal Fault Scarps

Symbols and abbreviations

Glossary

5.10.1 Introduction

5.10.2 Basin and Range Province

5.10.3 Slope Retreat Versus Recline

5.10.4 Modeling the Decay of Transport-Limited Scarps

5.10.5 Limitation of the Geometric Model for Normal Fault Scarp Decay

5.10.6 Summary

References

5.11 Landslides Generated by Earthquakes: Immediate and Long-Term Effects

Glossary

5.11.1 Introduction

5.11.2 Overview of Landslide Occurrence in Earthquakes

5.11.3 Geomorphic and Postearthquake Effects of Earthquake-Induced Landslides

5.11.4 Conclusions

References

5.12 Paleoseismology

Glossary

5.12.1 Introduction

5.12.2 Earthquake Recurrence Models

5.12.3 Recent Methodological Developments in Paleoseismology

5.12.4 On-Fault Paleoseismology

5.12.5 Off-Fault Paleoseismology

5.12.6 Contribution to Seismic Hazards

5.12.7 Challenges

Acknowledgments

References

5.13 Glacially Influenced Tectonic Geomorphology: The Impact of the Glacial Buzzsaw on Topography and Orogenic Systems

5.13.1 Introduction

5.13.2 Basics of Glacial Erosion

5.13.3 Glacial Erosion and Topography

5.13.4 Influence of Glaciers on Tectonics

5.13.5 Discussions and Conclusions

References

5.14 Tectonic Aneurysms and Mountain Building

Nomenclature

5.14.1 Introduction

5.14.2 Tectonic Aneurysm: Conceptual Model

5.14.3 Physics and Boundary Conditions of the Tectonic Aneurysm

5.14.4 Geodynamics of the Tectonic Aneurysm

5.14.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

5.15 The Influence of Middle and Lower Crustal Flow on the Landscape Evolution of Orogenic Plateaus: Insights from the Himalaya and Tibet

Abbreviations

Glossary

5.15.1 Introduction

5.15.2 Development and Geophysical Characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau

5.15.3 Gravitational Potential Energy Gradients and the Dynamics of Middle Crustal Flow

5.15.4 Geomorphology and Tectonics of the Tibetan Plateau

5.15.5 A Self-Consistent Model of the Cenozoic Topographic Evolution of the Tibetan Plateau, Assuming Lower and Middle Crustal Flow

5.15.6 Feedbacks among Middle-Lower Crustal Flow, Landscape Evolution, and Climate

5.15.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

5.16 Polygenetic Landscapes

Abbreviations

Glossary

5.16.1 Introduction

5.16.2 Early Conceptual Models for Landscape Evolution

5.16.3 System and Equilibrium Models

5.16.4 Models for Feedback between Climate and Tectonics

5.16.5 Relief Production

5.16.6 Landscape Evolution and Scale

5.16.7 Mathematical and Computational Modeling

5.16.8 Conclusion

References

Volume 6: Karst Geomorphology

Introduction

6.1 New Developments of Karst Geomorphology Concepts

Glossary

6.1.1 Introduction

6.1.2 Processes of Carbonate Karst

6.1.3 Rates, Dates, and Evolution of Carbonate Karst

6.1.4 Surface Processes and Landforms in Carbonate Karst

6.1.5 Subsurface Processes and Landforms

6.1.6 Karst Variation over a Range of Environmental Settings

6.1.7 Noncarbonate Karst

6.1.8 Conclusion

References

Relevant Websites

6.2 Karst Landforms: Scope and Processes in the Early Twenty-First Century

Glossary

6.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2 Historical Background

6.2.3 The Geologic Substrate and Chemical Weathering Mechanisms

6.2.4 Types of Karst

6.2.5 Telogenetic Karst and Ancillary Processes

6.2.6 Coastal Karst/Eogenetic Karst

6.2.7 Hypogenetic Karst

6.2.8 Conclusions

References

Processes and Features of Carbonate Karst

6.3 Sources of Water Aggressiveness – The Driving Force of Karstification

Glossary

6.3.1 Introduction

6.3.2 Water Aggressiveness and Bedrock Contact

6.3.3 Sources of Aggressiveness

References

6.4 Karst Geomorphology: Sulfur Karst Processes

Glossary

6.4.1 Introduction

6.4.2 Redox Cycling of Sulfur

6.4.3 Epigenic Processes

6.4.4 Hypogenic/Artesian Processes

6.4.5 Summary

References

6.5 Biospeleogenesis

Glossary

6.5.1 Introduction

6.5.2 The Nature and Importance of Microorganisms

6.5.3 Redox Chemistry and Central Metabolism

6.5.4 Biospeleogenesis: Metabolism and the CO2 Factor

6.5.5 Established Biospeleogenesis: Sulfidic Systems

6.5.6 Postulated Respiratory Biospeleogenesis: Iron Systems

6.5.7 Morphological Implications of Postulated Iron Biospeleogenesis

6.5.8 Potential Metabolic Biospeleogenesis: Silicate Systems

6.5.9 Morphological Implications of Postulated Quartzite Biospeleogenesis

6.5.10 Conclusions

References

6.6 Karstification by Geothermal Waters

Glossary

6.6.1 Introduction

6.6.2 Zonation and Settings of Hydrothermal Karst in the Earth’s Crust

6.6.3 Diagnostics of Thermal Water Caves

6.6.4 Macromorphology of Hydrothermal Caves

6.6.5 Mesomorphology of Hydrothermal Caves

6.6.6 Micromorphology of Hydrothermal Caves

6.6.7 Conclusions

References

Rates, Dates, and Ancient Carbonate Karst

6.7 Denudation and Erosion Rates in Karst

6.7.1 Introduction

6.7.2 Solutional Erosion Rates in Carbonate Karst – Theoretical Considerations

6.7.3 Solutional Erosion Rates in Carbonate Karst – Field Measurements

6.7.4 Temporal Variations in Carbonate Solutional Erosion Rates

6.7.5 Spatial Variations in Carbonate Solutional Erosion Rates

6.7.6 Surface Lowering in Karst – Denudation Sensu Stricto

6.7.7 Conclusions