The World of Sea Cucumbers

Challenges, Advances, and Innovations

1st Edition - October 28, 2023
Editors: Annie Mercier, Jean-Francois Hamel, Andrew Suhrbier, Christopher Pearce
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 5 3 7 7 - 1
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 5 3 7 8 - 8

The World of Sea Cucumbers: Challenges, Advances, and Innovations provides broad coverage of sea cucumber biology, ecology, fisheries, aquaculture, and trade while also bringing… Read more

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The World of Sea Cucumbers: Challenges, Advances, and Innovations provides broad coverage of sea cucumber biology, ecology, fisheries, aquaculture, and trade while also bringing forward novel cultural, socioeconomic and scientific topics related to commercial and non-commercial species worldwide. Written by international experts in their respective fields, the book offers a unique outlook into the fascinating world of sea cucumbers while also providing valuable information to various stakeholders and researchers. Commercial fisheries and aquaculture programs are addressed, especially as they relate to emerging species, but the book also covers novel, understudied or lesser-known biological, ecological, and commercial aspects.

The involvement of Indigenous peoples and minorities in various community-level initiatives and on the cultural significance/impact of sea cucumbers in many regions are also examined. Finally, breakthroughs and emerging biotechnologies centered on sea cucumbers are presented.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
Section I. Background and overview
Chapter 1. An overview of taxonomic and morphological diversity in sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea: Echinodermata)
1.1. Overview
1.2. Early descriptions and etymology
1.3. Classification
1.4. Illustrated diversity of sea cucumbers in the main orders
Chapter 2. Perspectives on sea cucumber knowledge syntheses
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Methods
2.3. Results and discussion
Chapter 3. A journal dedicated to holothuroids: The SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Countries and FAO areas
3.4. Topics
3.5. Conclusion
Section II. Sociology
Chapter 4. The McDonaldization of the sea cucumber: Changes in foodways of an ancient delicacy in Northeastern Asia
4.1. Introduction
4.2. The ci shen and the guang shen
4.3. Sea cucumber foodways in Dalian
4.4. Sea cucumber foodways in Seoul
4.5. Fast food and slow food
Chapter 5. Sea cucumbers in Chinese daily life
5.1. Why do the Chinese eat sea cucumbers?
5.2. How do Chinese people eat sea cucumbers?
5.3. When do the Chinese eat sea cucumbers?
5.4. Who can eat sea cucumbers and who should not?
Chapter 6. Beyond beche-de-mer: Sea cucumbers in nontraditional food products, health supplements, and biotechnology
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Lesser-known food products
6.3. Health and skin products
Chapter 7. Mystery, muse, monster: Sea cucumbers in popular culture
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Legends, tales, and folklore
7.3. Poetry
7.4. Books and novels
7.5. Music
7.6. TV and movies
7.7. Anime and manga
7.8. Video games
7.9. Costume, fashion, and merchandise
7.10. Nomenclature
7.11. Conclusion
Chapter 8. Women in sea cucumber fisheries and aquaculture—Can we make their participation equal and fair?
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Women in sea cucumber fisheries
8.3. Women in sea cucumber aquaculture
8.4. The way forward for equal and fair participation
Chapter 9. Artisanal processing and consumption of sea cucumbers: Stories from the Philippines and Fiji Islands
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Balat kinilaw (Southern Philippines)
9.3. Taddik kinilaw (Tawi-Tawi, Philippines)
9.4. Dried bat curry and mixed noodles (Tawi-Tawi, Philippines)
9.5. Dairo vakasoso (stuffed sea cucumber, Fiji)
9.6. Summary
Chapter 10. Importance of Sea cucumber fisheries and trade for small island communities: A case study in Papua New Guinea
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Assessing livelihoods
10.3. Exploitation
10.4. Sea cucumber stocks
10.5. Local tenureship arrangements
10.6. Disputes and declining sea cucumber stocks
10.7. The moratorium
10.8. Conservation efforts
10.9. Management of sea cucumber stocks
10.10. Governability of sea cucumber fisheries
10.11. Conclusions
Chapter 11. Aspects of the relationship between the giant red sea cucumber, Apostichopus californicus, and the Indigenous People of the Northwest Coast of North America
11.1. Since time immemorial…
11.2. Language and culture
11.3. Traditional harvest
11.4. Contemporary use
Chapter 12. Perspectives on sea cucumber use and research in the Canadian Arctic with special attention to Sanikiluaq (Qikiqtait, Nunavut)
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Data available on sea cucumbers in the Canadian Arctic
Chapter 13. Sea cucumber crime
13.1. Introduction
13.2. The importance of sea cucumbers
13.3. Sea cucumber fisheries
13.4. Roving bandits and serial exploitation
13.5. Conservation status
13.6. Scale of sea cucumber crime
13.7. Drivers of sea cucumber crime—push and pull factors
13.8. Sea cucumber crime and punishment
13.9. Organized crime
13.10. Crime throughout sea cucumber fishery supply chains
13.11. The harms of illegal, unreported, and unregulated sea cucumber fishing
13.12. Conclusion
Section III. Biology
Chapter 14. Knowledge of biodiversity and reproduction in sea cucumbers from southern South America to the Antarctic Peninsula
14.1. Water masses and seafloor characterization
14.2. Holothuroid fauna
Chapter 15. Adult fission as an auxiliary reproductive mode in holothuroids, with a detailed look at Holothuria atra and Stichopus chloronotus
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Fission in holothuroids
15.3. Fission in H. atra and S. chloronotus
Chapter 16. Morphological diversity, development, and biology of sea cucumber larvae
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Pelagic development
16.3. Benthic development
16.4. Promising areas for future research
Chapter 17. Biology and ecology of wild juvenile sea cucumbers: What do we know?
17.1. Biology
17.2. Ecology
17.3. Conclusions
Chapter 18. A preliminary survey and analysis of beaching events involving sea cucumbers
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Geographic and taxonomic distribution of events
18.3. Frequency and magnitude of events
18.4. Possible causes of events
18.5. Conclusions
Supplementary material
Chapter 19. Autotomy, evisceration, and regeneration in dendrochirotid holothuroids
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Behavioral events
19.3. Causes and control of evisceration
19.4. Morphology of autotomy structures
19.5. Anatomy of regeneration
19.6. Cell and tissue processes of regeneration
19.7. Discussion
Chapter 20. Locomotor, feeding, and reproductive behaviors of sea cucumbers with a focus on Apostichopus japonicus
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Locomotion
20.3. Feeding and growth
20.4. Reproduction
20.5. Reef and substrate preference
20.6. Summary
Chapter 21. Swimming sea cucumbers
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Categories of swimmers in sea cucumbers
21.3. Mode of swimming and role of “ballast”
21.4. Morphological adaptations
21.5. Altitude of swimming and abundance
21.6. Advantages of swimming
21.7. Swimming in other echinoderms
Chapter 22. Glowing sea cucumbers: Bioluminescence in the Holothuroidea
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Taxonomic distribution of luminous species of Holothuroidea
22.3. Bioluminescent behavior and physiological responses
22.4. Molecular mechanisms of the bioluminescent reaction
22.5. Evolution of bioluminescence in Holothuroidea
Chapter 23. Diversity of coelomocytes in the class Holothuroidea
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Main methods and protocols used to study coelomocytes and cellular aggregates in Echinodermata
23.3. Nomenclature, morphology, and physiological function of coelomocytes and cellular aggregates in Holothuroidea
23.4. Distribution of coelomocytes and cellular aggregates in the class Holothuroidea
23.5. Origin and maturation of coelomocytes in Holothuroidea
23.6. Concluding remarks and perspectives
Chapter 24. Vibratile cells and hemocytes in sea cucumbers—Clarifications and new paradigms
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Materials and methods
24.3. Results and discussion
24.4. Conclusions
Section IV. Ecology
Chapter 25. Chemical ecology of sea cucumber reproduction
25.1. Introduction
25.2. The role of chemical communication in sea cucumber reproduction
25.3. How are pheromones perceived?
25.4. Practical applications
25.5. Conclusion and future directions
25.6. Glossary
Chapter 26. Decorator sea cucumbers: An overview of epibiotic associates of Holothuria floridana and H. mexicana
26.1. Overview of symbiosis in sea cucumbers
26.2. Epibionts of Holothuria floridana and H. mexicana in Belize
26.3. Hosting of progeny
26.4. Observations from Panama
26.5. Conclusions
Chapter 27. Adaptations of pearlfish (Carapidae) to their life inside sea cucumbers
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Diet
27.3. Behavior and anatomy
27.4. Life cycle
27.5. Sound production
27.6. Breathing adaptation
27.7. Resistance to saponins
27.8. Conclusion
Chapter 28. Sediment processing: The foremost ecological role of tropical deposit-feeding sea cucumbers
28.1. Introduction
28.2. Tropical sediment biomes
28.3. Bioturbation of reef sediment
28.4. Rates of sediment turnover
28.5. Sediment grain size selectivity
28.6. Feeding and trophic roles
28.7. Influence on reef biogeochemistry
28.8. Consequences of sea cucumber exploitation on ecological functioning
Chapter 29. Gut microbiota of sea cucumbers, with a focus on Apostichopus japonicus
29.1. Gut microbiota composition and function of sea cucumbers in different habitats
29.2. Gut microbiota composition and function of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus
29.3. Gut microbiota composition of Apostichopus japonicus in different seasons
29.4. Gut microbiota of Apostichopus japonicus during visceral regeneration
29.5. Factors affecting gut microbiota in sea cucumbers
Chapter 30. Sea cucumbers under ocean acidification and warming
30.1. Introduction
30.2. Ocean acidification
30.3. Combined ocean acidification and warming
30.4. Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 31. Sea cucumbers in a world of high temperature and low dissolved oxygen: An overview focusing on Apostichopus japonicus
31.1. Key environmental factors for sea cucumbers—temperature and dissolved oxygen
31.2. Behavioral, structural, and physiological responses of sea cucumbers under high temperature and low dissolved oxygen
31.3. Molecular regulatory mechanisms of sea cucumbers under high temperature and low dissolved oxygen
31.4. Conclusions
Chapter 32. Sea cucumber response to microplastic pollution
32.1. Microplastic source and pathway in the ocean
32.2. Potential hazard of microplastics
32.3. Extraction, identification, and characterization of microplastics in sea cucumbers
32.4. Effects of microplastics on sea cucumbers
32.5. Microplastics-free sea cucumbers
32.6. Conclusion
Section V. Research and development
Chapter 33. Exploring body-size metrics in sea cucumbers through a literature review and case study of the commercial dendrochirotid Cucumaria frondosa
33.1. Introduction
33.2. Literature review: how do we reliably measure body-size and morphological plasticity in sea cucumber research?
33.3. Case study: how can we use various body-size measurements to reveal drivers of size distribution in an existing dataset of Cucumaria frondosa?
33.4. Discussion
33.5. Conclusions
Chapter 34. Color morphs in Apostichopus japonicus: Physiology and molecular regulation mechanisms
34.1. Introduction
34.2. Pigment composition
34.3. Pigmentation process
34.4. Environmental adaptability and nutritional requirements
34.5. Molecular regulatory mechanisms
34.6. Conclusion
Chapter 35. Neuroendocrine hormones and signaling systems in sea cucumbers
35.1. Nonpeptide hormones in sea cucumbers
35.2. Neuropeptides in sea cucumbers
35.3. Conclusions
Chapter 36. Mutable collagenous tissues in sea cucumbers
36.1. Definition and types of mutable collagenous tissues in sea cucumbers
36.2. Mutable collagenous tissue structure and function
36.3. Biomimetic interest in sea cucumber mutable collagenous tissues
36.4. Conclusion
Chapter 37. Novel biomaterials and biotechnological applications derived from North Atlantic sea cucumbers: A systematic review
37.1. Introduction
37.2. Biomedical tissue regenerative potential of North Atlantic sea cucumber collagen
37.3. Structures and functions of known bioactive compounds
37.4. Microbiota associated with North Atlantic sea cucumbers
37.5. Cell cultures from sea cucumbers
37.6. Conclusions
Chapter 38. Sea cucumbers and cheese making: Exploring the use of milk coagulant obtained from the digestive tract of Holothuria scabra
38.1. Introduction
38.2. Materials and methods
38.3. Results
38.4. Discussion
38.5. Conclusion
Chapter 39. Sea cucumber aquaculture start-up experience: The case of the Maldives
39.1. Introduction
39.2. Choosing a species for mariculture
39.3. Choosing a mariculture location
39.4. International government relationships
39.5. “Lean start-up,” proof-of-concept cycle
39.6. Location considerations within the Maldives
39.7. Lagoon development
39.8. Hatchery structure and rearing tank designs
39.9. Developing processing methods
39.10. Sales, marketing, and supply chain development
39.11. Summary
Chapter 40. Diversifying sea cucumber aquaculture in the Caribbean: The promising example of Holothuria floridana in Panama, Mexico, and Belize
40.1. A brief history of sea cucumber aquaculture in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico
40.2. Biology and ecology of Holothuria floridana
40.3. General methodologies for aquaculture of Holothuria floridana
40.4. The cases of Mexico, Belize, and Panama
40.5. PanaSea, the first large-scale hatchery for Holothuria floridana in the Caribbean
40.6. Future perspectives and conclusions
Chapter 41. Role of sea cucumbers as an ecosystem service in land-based aquaculture
41.1. Introduction
41.2. Aims and status of sea cucumber land-based IMTA
41.3. Discussion—outlook
41.4. Conclusion
Section VI. Species and their exploitation around the world
Chapter 42. Biology, ecology, aquaculture, and commercial products of Apostichopus californicus
42.1. Taxonomy
42.2. Range and habitat
42.3. Conservation status
42.4. Morphology
42.5. Physiology
42.6. Reproduction and development
42.7. Ecology
42.8. Genetics
42.9. Health and disease
42.10. Tagging
42.11. Aquaculture
42.12. Fishery
42.13. Chemical composition and products
42.14. Future directions
Chapter 43. Ensuring long-term sustainability of the fishery for Apostichopus californicus in British Columbia (Canada) through collaborative science and adaptive management
43.1. Introduction
43.2. Overview of the commercial sea cucumber fishery in BC
43.3. Collaborative science and adaptive management
43.4. Acronym glossary
Chapter 44. Dynamic history and status of fisheries for the sea cucumbers Apostichopus californicus and Apostichopus parvimensis on the west coast of the United States
44.1. Introduction
44.2. Alaska
44.3. Washington
44.4. Oregon
44.5. California
44.6. Conservation concerns, emerging issues, and other considerations for sea cucumber fishery managers on the west coast of the USA
Chapter 45. Can sea cucumber fisheries be sustainable? The Mexican case study
45.1. Introduction
45.2. Materials and methods
45.3. Results and discussion
Abbreviations
Chapter 46. Aquaculture of the chocolate chip sea cucumber, Isostichopus badionotus, in Yucatán, Mexico: Progress and challenges
46.1. Biology and ecology of Isostichopus badionotus
46.2. Harvesting
46.3. Aquaculture of Isostichopus badionotus
46.4. Advances in the aquaculture of I. badionotus
46.5. Conclusions and future perspectives
Chapter 47. Sea cucumber fisheries in Northern Europe
47.1. Introduction
47.2. Taxonomy, biology, and habitat of marketable species
47.3. Management and legislation
47.4. Current status—harvest methods and landings
47.5. The nascent sea cucumber industry in Northern Europe
Chapter 48. Mediterranean sea cucumbers—Biology, ecology, and exploitation
48.1. Mediterranean biodiversity: an overview
48.2. Mediterranean sea cucumbers
48.3. Biology and ecology of the dominant sea cucumber species
48.4. Fishery and exploitation
48.5. Conclusions
Chapter 49. History of the fishery and aquaculture of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in Russia
49.1. Introduction
49.2. Study of Apostichopus japonicus in Russia
49.3. History of the Russian fishery
Chapter 50. Ecology and culture of the warty sea cucumber (Stichopus cf. horrens) in the Philippines
50.1. Introduction
50.2. Taxonomy and phylogenetics
50.3. Ecology
50.4. Reproductive biology
50.5. Culture
50.6. Fisheries and population management
Chapter 51. Future prospects for sea cucumber mariculture in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands
51.1. Introduction
51.2. Tropical sea cucumber mariculture in the Pacific Islands region
51.3. Comparison with the Papua New Guinea experience
51.4. Future of community sea cucumber mariculture in Papua New Guinea
51.5. Conclusions
Index

Annie Mercier

Annie Mercier is a Professor at the Department of Ocean Sciences of Memorial University (Canada) where she pursues wide-ranging research interests around marine benthic communities and their response to exogenous factors and environmental stressors. She and her team study life-history strategies and species interactions at various scales in a broad variety of taxa (with a focus on echinoderms, molluscs, and cnidarians) from coastal, polar and deep-sea environments. Her areas of expertise also include the management and conservation of ecologically and commercially important marine species. As of 2022, Annie Mercier had co-edited 4 academic books, and co-authored more than 200 scientific publications, including 12 refereed chapters, over 130 peer-reviewed articles and several technical reports. She also holds editorial positions inside two scientific journals and co-chairs the IUCN Species Survival Commission Specialist Group on Sea Cucumbers. Prior to her faculty position at Memorial University, Annie Mercier conducted research in the Indo-Pacific islands together with her partner Jean-François Hamel. Their research on the fundamental biology and reproductive habits of key commercial sea cucumbers, in partnership with international organizations (FAO, IUCN, CITES) and foreign institutions, facilitated the development of numerous fisheries and aquaculture programs. The pair also published popular books and articles on wildlife, diving, and environmental issues, and assisted with the production of museum exhibitions and film documentaries. To this day, they continue to work, publish and deliver conferences on the ecology and management of marine resources in Canada and abroad.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor, Department of Ocean Sciences of Memorial University, Canada

Jean-Francois Hamel

Jean-François Hamel is a research scientist and co-founder of the Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment, based in Canada. He conducts fundamental studies on the diversity of life-history strategies in boreal and tropical marine invertebrates world-wide, with a focus on echinoderms and cnidarians, and an interest in their management and conservation. He specializes in the interplay between environmental factors and the ecology of early life stages. As of 2022, he had co-edited 4 academic books, and co-authored 12 refereed book chapters, over 130 peer-reviewed articles and several technical reports, totalling more than 200 scientific publications. As an echinoderm specialist with over 35 years of experience, Jean-François Hamel has worked around the world (e.g. Brazil, Belize, China, Ecuador, Indonesia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Panama, Solomon Islands), often with his partner Annie Mercier, in collaboration with international organizations (FAO, IUCN, CITES) and foreign institutions. He regularly travels as a scientific consultant to deliver presentations and help with the development of sea cucumber nurseries, grow-out facilities and sea ranching initiatives. He is also building partnerships with Northern communities of Canada around the sustainable exploitation of benthic resources. Aside from being passionate scientists and fierce advocates of marine resources conservation, Jean-François Hamel and Annie Mercier have authored numerous popular articles on wildlife, diving, aquarium hobby, travel destinations and environmental issues in magazines around the world. They also write coffee table books and are periodically involved in the production of film documentaries

Affiliations and expertise

Researcher/Consultant, Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment (SEVE), Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Andrew Suhrbier

Andy Suhrbier is a Research Biologist at the Pacific Shellfish Institute (Olympia, Washington, USA) where he focuses on multiple aspects of marine molluscs and echinoderms. For over 22 years he has been involved in aquaculture development, marine benthic/water quality studies, mapping of marine habitats including eelgrass and aquaculture, project development and management. He developed shellfish certification standards for the west coast shellfish industry for the certification entity: “The Food Alliance”. He maintains 4 water quality monitoring stations related to ocean acidification, as part of the Northwest Association of Networked Ocean Observing Systems (NANOOS). Intrigued by population declines and the multitrophic aquaculture potential of the giant red sea cucumber (Apostichopus californicus) he started leading sea cucumber research in 2015. Current sea cucumber work involves genetics, aquaculture, multitrophic aquaculture, resource use and enhancement in Washington state, California, Oregon, and Alaska, USA. Working with the shellfish, seaweed and kelp industries, academia, state agencies, native tribes and nations and NGO’s he pushes for advances for upland and marine aquaculture of Apostichopus californicus with the seaweed dulse (Palmaria palmata), mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis and Mytilus trossulus), cockles (Clinocardium nuttallii) and oysters (Ostrea lurida and Crassostrea gigas). He has chaired echinoderm sessions and reviewed many North American and international journal articles and proposals. He has authored and co-authored multiple sea cucumber reports and standard operating procedures with a goal to advance knowledge and ultimately see commercial scale sea cucumber aquaculture on the USA west coast.

Affiliations and expertise

The Pacific Shellfish Institute, WA, USA

Christopher Pearce

Chris Pearce is a research scientist with Fisheries and Oceans Canada at the Pacific Biological Station (Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada), where he conducts studies on sustainable aquaculture, focusing on the effects of various environmental factors on the biology, physiology, and genomics of a variety of cultured freshwater and marine invertebrates (i.e. geoduck clams, giant red sea cucumbers, green/purple/red sea urchins, Manila clams, Pacific oysters, and signal crayfish). He works closely with the commercial shellfish and finfish culture industries and various First Nations in British Columbia to address issues related to the ecological, economical, and social sustainability of invertebrate aquaculture, results from his research having contributed to the development of various federal aquaculture policies and frameworks. He is a specialist on integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) and lower-trophic-level aquaculture, routinely advising provincial, national, and international companies, organizations, research networks, and governing bodies on various facets of those two fields. He is currently working with the salmon aquaculture industry in western Canada to examine the feasibility of sea cucumbers to mitigate net biofouling and organic particulate accumulation at commercial fish farms. As of 2022, he had authored/co-authored 120 scientific publications, including 90 peer-reviewed journal articles and 30 governmental/industry technical reports. He holds editorial positions with two scientific journals, maintains adjunct status at two universities (Vancouver Island University and University of Victoria), and is past-president of the Aquaculture Association of Canada.

Affiliations and expertise

Fisheries and Oceans Department, Government of Canada, British Columbia, Canada

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The World of Sea Cucumbers

Challenges, Advances, and Innovations

Purchase options

Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Annie Mercier

Jean-Francois Hamel

Andrew Suhrbier

Christopher Pearce