The Uniqueness of Biological Materials

Periodic Table of the Elements

Atomic Scale Models

Preface

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations Used


1 Introduction


2 Hydrogen and Oxygen

2.1 The Uniqueness of Water

2.2 Hydrogen

2.3 Oxygen


3 The Uniqueness of Carbon

3.1 Other Elements of Group IV


4 Carbohydrates

4.1 Monoses and their Derivatives

4.2 Oligosaccharides

4.3 Polysaccharides


5 Ternary Compounds More Fully Oxidised than Carbohydrates

5.1 Polyhydroxycarboxylic Acids

5.2 Compounds of the Respiratory Pathways


6 Ternary Compounds of Intermediate Grades of Reduction

6.1 Polyhydroxy Alcohols

6.2 Cyclitols

6.3 Cyclitol Derivatives


7 Fatty Acids and Related Lipids

7.1 The Fatty Acids (Acylic Acids)

7.1.1 Unsaturated Fatty Acids

7.1.2 Branched Chain Fatty Acids

7.1.3 Dicarboxylic Fatty Acids

7.1.4 Hydroxy Fatty Acids

7.2 Esters of Fatty Acids

7.3 Oligohydric Aliphatic Alcohols

7.4 Aliphatic Ethers (R1•CH2—O—CH2•R2)

7.5 Alkyl Aldehydes and Ketones


8 Paraffins (CnH2n+2)

8.1 Cycloparaffins


9 Olefines and Ternary Unsaturated Compounds

9.1 Oxy-isoprenoid Compounds

9.2 Steroids


10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Ternary Compounds

10.1 Monocyclic Biological Aromatic Compounds

10.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Ternary Compounds

10.3 Chain-linked Cyclic Compounds


11 Heterocyclic Ternary Compounds


12 The Uniqueness of Nitrogen

12.1 Ammonia

12.2 Organic Oxides of Nitrogen

12.3 Cyanides

12.4 Amino Compounds


13 Amino Acids

13.1 The α-Complex

13.2 The Side Chains

13.3 The Individual Amino Acids

13.4 Interactions between Amino Acids

13.5 Conclusions


14 Peptides


15 Proteins

15.1 Classification of Proteins

15.2 Molecular Size

15.3 Molecular Shape

15.4 The Structure of Protein Molecules

15.5 Solubility and Related Properties of Proteins

15.5.1 Colloidal States of Proteins

15.5.2 Gels

15.5.3 Liquid Crystals

15.5.4 Coacervates

15.6 Denaturation of Proteins

15.7 Amino Acid Composition of Proteins

15.7.1 Conclusions

15.8 The Sequence of Amino Acids in Proteins

15.9 Proteins as Catalysts

15.10 Proteins and Immunity Reactions

15.11 Conclusions


16 Other Open Chain Nitrogen Compounds

16.1 Amides

16.1.1 Polyamides: Urea

16.2 Amines

16.2.1 Conjugated Amines: Phosphatides and Cerebrosides

16.3 Betaines

16.4 Amidines and Guanidines

16.4.1 Guanidines

16.5 Conclusions


17 Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds: Pyrroles and Porphyrins

17.1 Pyrrolidines and Pyrroles

17.2 Open Chain Polypyrroles

17.3 Porphyrins

17.4 Porphyrans

17.4.1 Chlorophylls

17.4.2 Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)

17.5 Porphyranoproteins

17.6 Models and Pseudoporphyrins

17.7 Conclusions


18 Pyridine and Piperidine Compounds

18.1 Pyridines

18.1.1 Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)

18.2 Piperidine and Pyridine Alkaloids

18.3 Quinolines

18.4 Acridines

18.5 Conclusions


19 Compounds with more than one Nitrogen Atom per Ring


20 Pyrimidines, Purines, Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

20.1 Pyrimidine and Purine Bases

20.2 Nucleotides

20.3 Polynucleotides: Nucleic Acids

20.4 Nucleic Acids and the Specification of Proteins

20.5 Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids

20.6 Nucleoproteins

20.7 Conclusions


21 Pteridines

21.1 Pterins

21.1.1 Pteroyl Glutamic Acid (PGA)

21.2 Benzpteridines

21.3 Conclusions


22 Oxazines


23 Sulphur Compounds

23.1 Open Chain Biological Sulphur Compounds

23.2 Sulphur Heterocyclic Compounds

23.3 Conclusions


24 Phosphorus Compounds

24.1 Phosphates

24.1.1 Biological Phosphates and Phosphoryl Compounds

24.2 Other Phosphorus Compounds

24.3 Conclusions

24.4 Arsenic and Antimony


25 The Physiological Inorganic Ions

25.1 The Four Main Physiological Salts

25.1.1 Sodium

25.1.2 Potassium

25.1.3 Magnesium

25.1.4 Calcium

25.2 Chloride

25.3 Lithium, Beryllium and Fluorine

25.4 Conclusions


26 The Catalytic Metals

26.1 Iron

26.2 Cobalt and Nickel

26.3 Copper

26.3.1 Silver and Gold

26.4 Manganese

26.5 Zinc

26.5.1 Cadmium and Mercury

26.6 Chromium

26.7 Molybdenum

26.7.1 Tungsten and Uranium

26.8 Selenium

26.9 Vanadium

26.10 Titanium

26.11 Conclusions


27 The Halogens

27.1 Chlorine

27.2 Iodine

27.3 Bromine

27.4 Fluorine

27.5 Conclusions


28 Silicon and Boron

28.1 Silicon

28.1.1 Germanium

28.2 Boron

28.3 Conclusions


29 Higher Grades of Organisation

29.1 Membranes of Cells and Organelles

29.2 Structures Based on Fibrous Proteins

29.3 Systemic Dictation at the Molecular Level

29.4 Models of Higher Grades of Organisation

29.5 Conclusions


30 How Unique?

30.1 Uniqueness of Chain-length

30.2 Detoxication

30.3 Conclusions


31 Other Forms of Life?


32 The Origin and Evolution of Biological Uniqueness

Bibliography

Author Index

Subject Index

Other Titles in the Zoology Division