The Togaviruses

List of ContributorsPreface1. Introduction I. Historical Background: The Arthropod-Borne Viruses (Arboviruses) II. The Togaviridae III. Prospectus References2. Antigenic Characteristics and Classification of Togaviridae I. Introduction II. Antigenic Relationships among the Togaviridae III. Methods Used to Study Interrelationships IV. Other Factors Affecting Cross-Protection V. Medical and Biological Significance of Interfamily Relationships VI. Evolutionary Aspects of Togaviridae References3. Medical Significance of Togaviruses: An Overview of Diseases Caused by Togaviruses in Man and in Domestic and Wild Vertebrate Animals I. Introduction II. Description of Major Disease Groups III. Laboratory Infections IV. An Overview References4. Virus-Host Interactions in Natural and Experimental Infections with Alphaviruses and Flaviviruses I. Complexities of "Virulence" II. Target Organs in Alpha- and Flavivirus Infections III. Phylogenetic Host Determinants of Virulence—Vertebrate versus Arthropod Host Systems IV. Viral Virulence Markers: The Question of Genotypic versus Phenotypic Polymorphism V. Conclusions References5. Immunological Parameters of Togavirus Disease Syndromes I. Introduction II. Immunological Aspects of Dengue Infection III. The Immune Enhancement Hypothesis IV. Comment V. Appendix References6. Epidemiology of Arthropod-Borne Togaviruses: The Role of Arthropods as Hosts and Vectors and of Vertebrate Hosts in Natural Transmission Cycles I. Introduction II. The Alphaviruses III. The Flaviviruses References7. Arthropods as Hosts and Vectors of Alphaviruses and Flaviviruses—Experimental Infections I. Introduction II. Considerations in Undertaking Experimental Infection of Arthropods References8. Togavirus Morphology and Morphogenesis I. Introduction II. The Alphavirus Genus III. The Flavivirus Genus IV. The Rubivirus Genus V. The Pestivirus Genus VI. Unclassified Togaviruses VII. Comparisons and Conclusions References9. Alphavirus Proteins I. Protein Composition of Alphaviruses II. Isolation of Alphavirus Proteins III. Topography of the Spike Proteins in the Membrane IV. Functions of the Alphavirus Spike Glycoproteins References10. Lipids of Alphaviruses I. Introduction II. Structure of Lipids III. Origin and Diversity of Lipids IV. Role of Lipids References11. The Genome of Alphaviruses I. Physical Properties of the Alphavirus Genome II. Genetic Content and Organization of the Alphavirus Genome References12. Synthesis of Alphavirus RNA I. Introduction II. Early Events III. Nature and Synthesis of Alphavirus Minus-Strand RNA IV. Nature and Synthesis of Alphavirus Plus-Strand RNA V. Mechanism of Synthesis of 26 S RNA VI. Regulation of the Synthesis of 42 and 26 S Plus-Strand RNA VII. Kinetics of Alphavirus Plus- and Minus-Strand Synthesis and of Polymerase Formation VIII. Mechanistic Aspects of the Synthesis of Alphavirus RNA References13. Translation and Processing of Alphavirus Proteins I. Introduction II. Translation of Viral Proteins III. Glycosylation of Viral Envelope Proteins IV. Fatty Acid Acylation of Envelope Proteins V. Stoichiometry of Viral Structural Gene Products VI. Conclusion References14. Mutants of Alphaviruses: Genetics and Physiology I. Introduction II. Types of Mutants III. Genetic Interactions between Alphaviruses IV. Functional Defects of the Alphavirus to Mutants V. Concluding Remarks References15. Defective Interfering Alphaviruses I. Introduction II. First Reports of Defective Interfering Particles of Alphaviruses III. Properties of Alphavirus Defective Interfering Particles IV. Intracellular Viral Defective Interfering RNAs V. Sequences Found in Defective Interfering RNAs VI. Role and Influence of the Host Cell in the Generation and Replication of Alphavirus Defective Interfering Particles VII. Defective Interfering Particles in Persistently Infected Cultures VIII. Defective Interfering Particles in the Whole Animal IX. Concluding Remarks References16. Effects of Alphaviruses on Host Cell Macromolecular Synthesis I. Introduction II. The Effects of Lytic Infection of Vertebrate Cell Cultures on the Macromolecular Synthesis of the Host Cell III. Effects of Noncytolytic Infection of Arthropod Cell Cultures on Macromolecular Synthesis of Host Cell References17. The Assembly of Alphaviruses I. Introduction II. Assembly of Alphavirus Nucleocapsids III. Assembly of Alphavirus Membranes IV. Envelopment of the Alphavirus Nucleocapsid V. Future Research in Alphavirus Assembly References18. Chemical and Antigenic Structure of Flaviviruses I. Introduction II. Physical and Chemical Characteristics III. Virion RNA IV. Proteins and Glycoproteins V. Lipids VI. Antigenic Characteristics VII. Present and Future Investigations References19. Replication of Flaviviruses I. Introduction II. Transcription III. Virus-Specified Proteins IV. Protein Synthesis in Infected Cells V. Assembly and Maturation VI. Summary of Flavivirus Replication References20. Togaviruses in Cultured Arthropod Cells I. Introduction II. Arthropod Cell Lines Used for the Growth of Togaviruses III. Growth of Viruses in Cell Lines of Arthropod Origin IV. Comparative Aspects of Togavirus Replication in Mosquito and Vertebrate Cells V. Cytopathic Effect in Mosquito Cells Infected with Togaviruses VI. Mosquito Cells Persistently Infected with Togaviruses VII. Mosquito Cells and Defective Interfering Particles of Alphaviruses VIII. Sindbis Virus Mutants in Cultured Mosquito Cells IX. Contaminating Viruses in Cultured Mosquito Cells X. Mutants of Mosquito Cells and Their Use for the Study of Togaviruses References21. Non-Arbo Togaviruses I. Introduction II. Pestiviruses III. Rubivirus IV. Other Viruses V. Non-Arbo Flaviviruses VI. Discussion ReferencesIndex