The Neuroscience of Pain, Anesthetics, and Analgesics

1st Edition - November 30, 2021
Editors: Rajkumar Rajendram, Vinood Patel, Victor R Preedy
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 2 1 0 6 6 - 6
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 0 3 1 3 - 4

The Neuroscience of Pain, Anesthetics and Analgesics examines the syndromes of pain and how they interlink with anesthesia and analgesics. The book covers assessments, s… Read more

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The Neuroscience of Pain, Anesthetics and Analgesics examines the syndromes of pain and how they interlink with anesthesia and analgesics. The book covers assessments, screening and resources, and provides applications to related areas of medicine. It explores how the perception of pain results from a multifaceted interaction between illness beliefs, age, gender, time of onset, stress, socioeconomic status, and other factors. In addition, it scrutinizes how the neuroscience of pain in one condition may be relevant to understanding pain observed in other conditions. Sections address the onset of pain, the cause of pain, and the administration of analgesia or anesthesia.

The book works to clarify all of the subjects pertinent to anesthesia and the brain. Featuring chapters on neurotransmitters, pharmacology and brain imaging, this volume discusses the mechanisms of pain and experimental studies undertaken to better understand the pathways involved.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Front Matter for Volume 1
Features and Assessments of Pain, Anesthesia, and Analgesia
Copyright for Volume 1
Contributors for Volume 1
Preface for Volume 1
Front Matter for Volume 2
Treatments, Mechanisms, and Adverse Reactions of Anesthetics and Analgesics
Copyright for Volume 2
Contributors for Volume 2
Preface for Volume 2
Front Matter for Volume 3
The Neurobiology, Physiology, and Psychology of Pain
Copyright for Volume 3
Contributors for Volume 3
Preface for Volume 3
Volume 1: Features and Assessments of Pain, Anesthesia, and Analgesia
Part I: Setting the scene: General aspects of anesthesia, analgesics and pain
Chapter 1: The concept of multimorphic cancer pain: A new approach from diagnosis to treatment
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Assessing and reassessing cancer pain and patients
Key facts of cancer pain etiologies (Fallon et al., 2018; Lemaire et al., 2019)
Other agents of interest: Benefits of supportive care (MASCC, 2020)
Applications to other areas: From supportive care in cancer to supportive medicine
Key facts of criteria defining the multimorphic nature of cancer pain (Lemaire et al., 2019)
Treatment strategies in multimorphic cancer pain
Key facts of WHO cancer pain management guiding principles (World Health Organization, 2018)
Summary points: Strong opioids in cancer pain management
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Recent advances in the linkage of attachment and pain: A new review
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 3: The management of pain in older people
Abstract
Introduction
Pain perception in the elderly
Assessing pain in older people
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes affecting older people
Overview of management of pain in older people
Opioids
Adjuvant analgesics
Summary of the pharmacological management of pain in older people
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 4: Anesthesia and body mass: Epidural depth and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Preoperative assessment
Assessment of respiratory system
Assessment of cardiovascular system
Assessment of endocrine and musculoskeletal systems
Intraoperative management
Induction of anesthesia, anesthetic agents, and muscle relaxants
Thiopental sodium
Propofol
Opioids
Neuromuscular-blocking agents and antagonists
Volatile anesthetics
Regional anesthesia
Cessation of anesthesia and postoperative care
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of anesthesia and body mass: Epidural depth and beyond
Summary points
References
Chapter 5: Anesthetics and analgesic activities of herbal medicine: Review of the possible mechanism of action
Abstract
Introduction
Local anesthetics herbs
General anesthetics herbs
Potential hazards of anesthetics herbal medicine
Application of anesthetics herbal medicine
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary
References
Chapter 6: Analgesia-first sedation and nonopioid multimodal analgesia in the intensive care unit
Abstract
Introduction
Pain and its assessment in critically ill adults
Assessment-driven protocols
Opioid choice, route of administration, and dosing
Analgosedation
Multimodal nonopioid analgesia use
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 7: The multidisciplinary Acute Pain Service_ Features and experiences
Abstract
Introduction
The history of Acute Pain Services
Basic characteristics of an Acute Pain Service
Acute Pain Service and clinical outcome
The diffusion of Acute Pain Services
The main clinical experiences regarding the establishment of an Acute Pain Service
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts—Mini-dictionary
Summary points
References
Chapter 8: Monitoring anesthesia: Electroencephalography and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Raw electroencephalography
Bispectral index
Evoked potential
Entropy
Narcotrend
Cerebral state index
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Part II: The syndromes of pain
Chapter 9: Cluster headache and pain: Features and treatments
Abstract
Introduction
Epidemiology
Rhythmicity
Pathophysiology
Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias
Treatment
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts/summary points
References
Chapter 10: Migraine and pain: Features and treatments
Abstract
Features
Treatments
Prophylactic migraine treatment
Nonpharmacological approach
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 11: Complex regional pain syndrome
Abstract
Introduction
Diagnosis
Pathophysiology
Management
Pharmacologic treatment
Interventional treatment
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 12: Phantom limb pain
Abstract
Disclaimer
Introduction
Diagnosis
Pathophysiology
Management
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 13: Painful diabetic neuropathy: The roles of microglia
Abstract
Introduction
Painful diabetic neuropathy
Microglia
Microglial activation during neuropathic pain
Central glia-neuronal interaction
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 14: Maternal deprivation and nociception
Abstract
Introduction
Development of nociceptive pathways
Maternal deprivation
Maternal deprivation and nociception: Preclinical perspectives
Maternal deprivation and nociception: Signaling pathways changes
Early life stress in humans including maternal deprivation
Environmental enrichment as a potential intervention against the effects of MD
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 15: Giving birth and pain
Abstract
Introduction
Modes of delivery
Stages of delivery
Pain treatment in giving birth
Neuraxial analgesia and anesthesia
Postpartum pain
Nonpharmacological treatment
Application to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 16: Abdominal pain in gastroparesis
Abstract
Introduction
Types of gastroparesis
Symptoms of gastroparesis
Abdominal pain in gastroparesis
Symptom assessment in gastroparesis
Physical examination of gastroparesis patients
Diagnosis of gastroparesis
Treatment of gastroparesis
Treatment of abdominal pain in gastroparesis
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 17: Appendicitis and related abdominal pain
Abstract
Introduction
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Natural history models
Typical presentation
Atypical presentation
Inflammatory markers
Clinical prediction rules and imaging tests
Management
Surgical approach and complications
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 18: Ovarian hormones, site-specific nociception, and hypertension
Abstract
Introduction
Nociception mechanisms and modulation in hypertension: An overview
Nociception and blood pressure
Sex differences and ovarian hormones
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest (250–500 words)
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 19: Linking the heart and pain: Physiological and psychophysiological mechanisms
Abstract
Introduction
The history of the subject
Aspects related to (i, ii) a hypertension-related hypoalgesia phenomenon in chronic and acute pain conditions and (iii) a pain-killing etiology of the essential (primary) hypertension
Aspects related to (iv) the effectiveness of pain management prediction and monitoring by cardiovascular measures and to (v) effective pain control by cardiovascular mechanisms with pain-killing effects
An aspect related to (vi) the pain-o-meter technology
An aspect related to (vii) the baroreflex control of blood volume and pressure fluctuations in response to posture or body position changes in patients with pain
Summarizing the current knowledge of heart and pain relationships
Applications to other areas
Other areas of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the issue associated with heart and pain interactions and related challenges
Summary points
References
Chapter 20: Chronic pain in military veterans
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical models of chronic pain
Military basic training and rates of injury
Combat-related injuries in military personnel
Types of chronic pain in veterans
Comorbid conditions in veterans with chronic pain
Psychological comorbidities and social factors in veterans with chronic pain
Pain assessment and treatment
Nonpharmacologic pain modalities
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of chronic pain in military veterans
Summary points
References
Chapter 21: Nociception during surgery
Abstract
Introduction
Nociceptive pathway during surgery
Monitoring of nociception under general anesthesia
Intraoperative nociception and postoperative complications
Effects of intraoperative nociception on postoperative pain
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 22: Breast cancer and nociceptione
Abstract
Introduction
Treatments for breast cancer-induced pain
Limitations of cancer pain treatments
Bone pain in breast cancer
Treatments of bone pain in breast cancer
Side effects observed for the treatments of bone cancer pain
Animal models of breast cancer pain: Breast inoculation models
Animal models of breast cancer pain: A brief history of bone inoculation models
Animal models of breast cancer pain: Distinct bone inoculation models
Possible pharmacological targets for breast cancer pain relief
Cancer pain treatment by nonpharmacological treatments
Conclusions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 23: Postoperative pain after rhinoplasty and rhinologic surgery
Abstract
Introduction
Intraoperative analgesia and anesthesia
Postoperative pain management
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 24: Pain response, neonates, and venipuncture
Abstract
Introduction
Pathophysiology of pain and CNS effects
Pain assessment tools
Problems in assessing neonatal pain
Pain relief measures
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 25: Carpal tunnel syndrome and pain
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Median nerve compression
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 26: Pain and HIV
Abstract
Introduction
Etiology of chronic pain in HIV
HIV-associated distal symmetric polyneuropathy
Current pain management
HIV, pain, and opioid use
Nonpharmacologic approaches to HIV-related pain
Future steps
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 27: Pain mechanisms in computer and smartphone users
Abstract
Introduction
Origins and mechanisms of neck-shoulder pain
Low-back pain mechanisms in computer and smartphone users
Individual risks factors
Physical risks factors for the development of pain
Psychosocial risks factors
Physical activity to prevent and manage musculoskeletal pain in computer and smartphone users
Ergonomics to prevent occupational musculoskeletal pain in computer and smartphone users
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Part III: Interlinking anesthesia, analgesics and pain
Chapter 28: Health professionals’ and lay people’s positions regarding the use of analgesics in cancer cases
Abstract
Introduction
Studies of clinicians and the public
Mapping general practitioner’s positions regarding the use of opioids
Mapping lay people’s and health professionals’ positions on the use of analgesics in postoperative pain management
Mapping lay people’s and health professionals’ positions regarding the use of morphine to relieve intense pain
Mapping lay people’s and health professionals’ positions regarding temporary or terminal sedation
General discussion
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 29: Manual compression at myofascial trigger points ameliorates musculoskeletal pain
Abstract
Introduction
Link between MTrPs and musculoskeletal pain
Diagnosis of MTrPs
Effects of compression at MTrPs for musculoskeletal pain
Possible mechanisms of MTrP compression effects
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of MTrP compression for musculoskeletal pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 30: Multimodal analgesia and postsurgical pain
Abstract
Introduction
Definition and classification of PSP
Incidence of PSP and CPSP
Pathophysiology of postoperative pain
Peripheral sensitization, central sensitization, and neuroplastic changes in the brain after incision
Importance of PSP control
Risk factors for CPSP
Evaluation of pain intensity
PSP management: Enhanced recovery after surgery programs (ERAS)-preemptive, preventive, and multimodal analgesia (MA)
Framework of multimodal analgesia (MA)
Nonpharmacological interventions
Systemic nonopioid analgesics
Systemic opioid analgesics
Regional anesthesia, local anesthesia, and site infiltration with local anesthetics
Populations that need special consideration in treating PSP
Application of MA to other areas
Conclusions
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 31: Pain, ultrasound-guided Pecs II block, and general anesthesia
Abstract
Introduction
Acute and chronic postoperative pain in breast surgery
General anesthesia: A brief description
Technical description of ultrasound-guided Pecs II block
Clinical application ultrasound-guided Pecs II block
Pectoral nerves, intercostal nerve, and long thoracic nerve
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of ultrasound-guided Pecs II block
Summary points
References
Chapter 32: Pain control during prostate biopsy and evolution of local anesthesia techniques
Abstract
Introduction
Applications of local anesthetics to other areas
Mini dictionary
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 33: Pain reduction in cosmetic injections: Fillers and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Psychological intervention
Vibration
Local anesthesia
Vapocoolant anesthesia
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 34: Anesthesia and combat-related extremity injury
Abstract
Introduction
Anesthesia and war
Acute pain
Regional anesthesia in extremity injury
Osseointegration and targeted muscle reinnervation
Damage control resuscitation
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Key facts of point of injury care
Summary points
References
Chapter 35: Spinal anesthesia: Applications to cesarean section and pain
Abstract
Introduction
History of spinal anesthesia in the field of obstetrics
Spinal technique
Preparation
Choice of spinal medication
Continuous spinal anesthesia
Intraoperative management
Recovery from spinal anesthesia
Postoperative complications
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 36: Postoperative pain management: Truncal blocks in thoracic surgery
Abstract
Introduction
Pain management for thoracic surgery patients within ERAS (enhanced recovery after surgery) protocols
Multimodal analgesia
Truncal blocks
Pectoral block type I and II
Serratus anterior plane block (SAPB)
Paravertebral block (PVB)
Intercostal block
Retrolaminar block (RLB)
Erector spinae plane block (ESPB)
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 37: Postoperative pain management: Truncal blocks in general surgery
Abstract
Introduction
Truncal blocks
Transversus abdominis plane block
Rectus sheath block
Ilioinguinal nerve and iliohypogastric nerve blocks
Paravertebral block
Intercostal block
Quadratus lumborum block
Erector spinae plane block
Transversalis fascia plane block
Contraindications in truncal blocks
Preparation for truncal blocks
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 38: Linking analgesia, epidural oxycodone, pain, and laparoscopy
Abstract
Introduction
Laparoscopy
Pain after laparoscopy
Pain treatment after laparoscopy
Interventions during surgery to prevent postoperative pain
Epidural analgesia
Oxycodone
Oxycodone central nervous penetration
Epidural oxycodone
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of epidural oxycodone
Summary points
References
Chapter 39: Levobupivacaine features and linking in infiltrating analgesia
Abstract
Pharmacological basis for choice of local anesthetic for central and peripheral blocks
Local anesthetic properties
The mechanism of LA action
Pharmacokinetics
Local anesthetic toxicity
Pharmacology and use of levobupivacaine
Our local infiltration analgesia (LIA) body protocol
Discussion
Conclusions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of levobupivacaine
Summary points
References
Part IV: Assessments, screening, and resources
Chapter 40: The pain catastrophizing scale: Features and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Features
Applications
Summary-conclusion
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
References
Chapter 41: Pain-related behavioral scales among a low back pain population: A narrative review
Abstract
Introduction
Methodology
Results
Discussion
Limitations
Conclusions
Clinical implication/Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
Appendix
References
Chapter 42: The analgesia nociception index: Features and application
Abstract
Introduction
Basic principle of the ANI
Features of the ANI monitor
Interpretation of ANI values
Clinical applications
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of ANI
Summary points
References
Chapter 43: Pain, anesthetics and analgesics/back pain evaluation questionnaires
Abstract
Introduction
Back pain evaluation questionnaires for disease-specific measures
Conclusion
Suggestions for practical procedures
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 44: The back pain functional scale: Features and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of back pain functional scale
Summary points
References
Chapter 45: Cognitive impairment, pain, and analgesia
Abstract
Introduction
Physiological and pathological aging: Cognitive impairment
Pain in the elderly
Neurodegenerative disorders: Alzheimer’s disease
Pain and Alzheimer’s disease
Future
References
Chapter 46: Biomarkers in endometriosis-associated pain
Abstract
Background
Prevalence
Diagnosis
Classification
Treatment
Biomarkers
Blood biomarkers
Urine biomarkers
Endometrial biomarkers
Discussion
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of endometriosis
Summary points
Applications to other areas
References
Chapter 47: Biomarkers in bladder pain syndrome: A new narrative
Abstract
Introduction
Biomarkers
IC/BPS biomarkers and their potential relationship to disease pathophysiology
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 48: Biomarkers of statin-induced musculoskeletal pain: Vitamin D and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Statin associated muscle symptoms
Cholesterol and vitamin D
SAMS biomarkers
Conclusion
Other agents of interest
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 49: Performance-based and self-reported physical fitness in musculoskeletal pain
Abstract
Physical fitness
Musculoskeletal disorders
Widespread musculoskeletal pain
Assessment of physical fitness in widespread musculoskeletal pain
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Volume 2: Treatments, Mechanisms, and Adverse Reactions of Anesthetics and Analgesics
Part I: Drugs and agents used in anesthesia and analgesia
Chapter 1: Anesthesia for malignant hyperthermia susceptible patients
Abstract
Introduction
Diseases associated with susceptibility to MH
Clinical manifestation—MH crisis
Diagnosis and differential diagnosis
Treatment of MH crisis
Anesthesia for patients susceptible to malignant hypertermia
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of malignant hyperthermia
Summary points
References
Chapter 2: Use of dextran in regional anesthesia
Abstract
Introduction
History of dextran as an LA adjuvant
Mechanism of dextran as LA adjuvant
Application of dextran as LA adjuvant for regional anesthesia
Summary of application of dextran as LA adjuvant
Future studies
Other agents
Mini-dictionary or terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 3: Intraperitoneal local anesthetic agents in the management of postoperative pain
Abstract
Introduction
Anatomic considerations and agents
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of intraperitoneal local anesthetic agents in the management of postoperative pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 4: Automatic control of anesthesia via different vital signs
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 5: Non-opioid based analgesia in otolaryngology
Abstract
Introduction
Patient pain experience in otolaryngology
Risk factors for greater pain experience
Non-opioid analgesia
Discussion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Part II: Mechanisms of action of drugs
Chapter 6: Buprenorphine: Mechanism and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Buprenorphine pharmacology
Adverse effects
Clinical use of buprenorphine
Perioperative management
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 7: Caffeine as analgesic adjuvant
Abstract
Introduction
Caffeine: Mechanism of action and effects in preclinical models of pain
Caffeine’s analgesic properties in humans
Pharmacokinetic properties in man in absence and presence of analgesics
Clinical efficacy data in acute pain trials
Caffeine and the ceiling effect of NSAIDs
Comparisons of caffeine-containing analgesics with active comparators
Caffeine and migraine
Caffeine and worsening of headache diseases?
Pain and functional impairment
Safety of caffeine and caffeine-containing analgesics
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts of caffeine
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 8: Chloroprocaine: Features and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of chloroprocaine: Features and applications
Summary points
References
Chapter 9: Clonidine: Features and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Pharmacological characteristics
Clinical applications in the perioperative period
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Conclusions
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 10: An excursion into secondary pharmacology of fentanyls with potential implications for drug design: σ1 receptor
Abstract
The role of fentanyl
Secondary pharmacology of fentanyls
σ1 receptor: A unique and intriguing protein
Affinity of fentanyls for σ1R
Fentanyls and σ1R: Insights from computations
Pharmacological relevance of fentanyls’ interactions with σ1R
Fentanyl structure as scaffold for dual μOR/σ1R ligands
Successful realization of the dual μOR/σ1R ligands concept
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Key facts of σ1 receptor
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 11: Isoflurane: Mechanisms and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Chemical structure and properties
Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics
Mechanism of action
Clinical effects
Adverse effects
Metabolism
Drug-drug interactions
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of isoflurane
Summary points
References
Chapter 12: The lidocaine patch: Features and applications: Post-thoracotomy pain and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Search strategy
Search results
Analysis of the results
Discussion
Conclusions
Key facts of lidocaine patch for controlling acute postoperative pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 13: Memantine: Features and application in the management of chronic pain
Abstract
Introduction
Background: NMDA antagonists and pain
Memantine: Fundamental pharmacology
Memantine: Preclinical evidence of effect on pain
Memantine: Clinical evidence and literature review in chronic pain
Memantine: Considerations for clinical use
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Conclusions
Key facts
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 14: Midazolam: Mechanism and perioperative applications
Abstract
Introduction
Mechanism of action
Pharmacokinetics
Effects on the central nervous system
Effects on the respiratory system
Effects on the cardiovascular system
Clinical uses and dosage
Applications to other areas: Palliative care
Other agents of interest: Flumazenil
Key facts of midazolam
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 15: Intravenous paracetamol: Features and applications
Abstract
Introduction
Chemical structure and pharmacokinetics
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of intravenous paracetamol
Summary points
References
Chapter 16: Prilocaine: Mechanisms and application
Abstract
The journey of local anesthetic
Structure
Classification of anesthetic drugs
Prilocaine
Pharmacology and mechanism action of local anesthetic agent—Prilocaine
Metabolism and excretion
Other applications of prilocaine
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary and conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Sevoflurane: Features and uses in topical application for wound care
Abstract
Introduction
Systemic effects of sevoflurane and haloethers as general anesthetics
Analgesic effects of sevoflurane and haloethers on the central nervous system
Peripheral analgesic effects of sevoflurane and haloethers
Off-label use of topical sevoflurane on painful chronic wounds
Safety issues of topical sevoflurane
Dosages and methods of administration
Economic implications
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of painful chronic wounds
Summary points
References
Chapter 18: Tramadol as an analgesic
Abstract
Introduction
Mechanism(s) of action
Pharmacokinetics
Therapeutic uses
Adverse effects and management of tramadol toxicity
Dependence, withdrawal, abuse, and tolerance
Contraindications
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Part III: Adverse effects, reactions, and outcomes
Chapter 19: Long-term effects of anesthesia on the brain: an update on neurotoxicity
Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the United States Federal Drug Administration (FDA)
Key facts of anesthetic neurotoxicity
Key facts of postoperative cognitive dysfunction
Other agents of interest
Summary points
References
Chapter 20: Breastfeeding and mother-baby dyad’s competence following neuraxial labor analgesia
Abstract
Introduction
Human rotational delivery and childbirth pain
From prayers to neuraxial analgesia: A brief history of childbirth pain relief
The analgesia-breastfeeding issue: Alleged mechanism of interference
Exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of infant’s life: Health impact
The analgesia-breastfeeding issue in the literature
The analgesia-breastfeeding issue as a new research opportunity
Breastfeeding as a measure of dyadic neurological competence
Searching for objective, nonbiased indicators of breastfeeding initiation success
Measuring and grading breastfeeding initiation success
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of labor analgesia state of art in guidelines and metaanalyses
Summary points
References
Chapter 21: Mechanistic overview of how opioid analgesics promote constipation
Abstract
Introduction
The enteric nervous system: Master regulator of GI function
Opioid receptors and their endogenous ligands
Opioids inhibit GI function through actions on the ENS
How do opioids exert their inhibitory effects on GI motility to promote chronic constipation?
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of opioid-induced constipation
Summary points
References
Chapter 22: Cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain and opioid use disorder
Abstract
Introduction
Prevalence of chronic pain and OUD
Clinical complexity of patients with chronic pain and OUD
Provider consideration
Necessary pharmacological platform: Medication for opioid use disorder
Optimal medical management
Overview of CBT for chronic pain and OUD
Seven clinical problems or challenges
Applications to other areas: Real-world delivery of CBT for chronic pain and OUD
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of CBT for chronic pain and OUD
Summary points
References
Chapter 23: Preoperative opioid and benzodiazepines: Impact on adverse outcomes
Abstract
Introduction
Definition of chronic opioid and BZD usage
Prevalence of chronic preoperative opioid and BZD usage
Characteristics of patient cohorts with preoperative chronic opioid and BZD usage
Perioperative outcomes of patients taking opioids and BZDs preoperatively
Increased risk of complications from analgesia
Other short-term outcomes
Long-term postoperative outcomes for patients
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 24: Malignant hyperthermia syndrome and hydrogen sulfide signaling: Role of Kv7 channels
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of “malignant hyperthermia syndrome and hydrogen sulfide signaling role of Kv7 channels”
Summary points
References
Chapter 25: Problems with epidural catheter
Abstract
Introduction
Problems encountered while inserting an epidural catheter
Breakage of epidural catheters
Blocked epidural catheter
Epidural catheter removal difficulty
Spinal epidural hematoma
Spinal epidural abscess
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 26: Headache after neuraxial blocks: A focus on combined spinal-epidural anesthesia
Abstract
Introduction
History of PDPH
The importance of PDPH
The mechanism of PDPH
The characteristics of PDPH
Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia
Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for special patient groups
Effects of application techniques of CSEA on headache
Prophylaxis of PDPH after UDP in neuroaxial anesthesia
Management of PDPH
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 27: Liposomal bupivacaine, pain relief and adverse events
Abstract
Introduction
Liposomes and DepoFoam
Liposomal bupivacaine
Clinical pharmacology
Safety and adverse events
Clinical uses and efficacy
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of liposome bupivacaine
Summary points
References
Chapter 28: Adverse events associated with analgesics: A focus on paracetamol use
Abstract
Introduction
Mechanism of toxicity
Clinical and laboratory manifestations of hepatotoxicity
Risk factors of liver injury
Management of acute poisoning
Chronic poisoning
Immediate hypersensitivity
Delayed hypersensitivity
Diagnosis and management of paracetamol-induced hypersensitivity reactions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of paracetamol-induced toxicity and hypersensitivity
Summary points
References
Part IV: Novel and nonpharmacological aspects and treatments
Chapter 29: Acronychia pedunculata leaves and usage in pain
Abstract
Introduction
Traditional medicinal system in Sri Lanka
Acronychia pedunculata as a Sri Lankan medicinal plant
Chemistry and biological activities of A. pedunculata
Anti-inflammatory activity of A. pedunculate leaves
Identification of anti-inflammatory fractions and active compounds of A. pedunculate leaves
Analgesic activity of A. pedunculate leaves
Other areas of applications of A. pedunculata
Other agents of interest
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary
A list of other novel plant-based agents used in analgesia or anesthesia
References
Chapter 30: Adansonia digitata and its use in neuropathic pain: Prostaglandins and beyond
Abstract
Introduction
Significance of Adansonia digitata
Composition of Adansonia digitata plant
Impact of Adansonia digitata on pain
Potential mechanism of actions for A. digitata extract, from prostaglandins and beyond
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 31: Andrographis paniculata standardized extract (ParActin) and pain
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 32: Capsaicin: Features usage in diabetic neuropathic pain
Abstract
Introduction
Clinical data of capsaicin in painful diabetic neuropathy
Modern-day studies
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 33: Cola nitida and pain relief
Abstract
Introduction on Cola nitida
Brief review on Cola nitida
Socio-cultural values and uses
Distribution of Cola nitida
Composition of Cola nitida
Uses of Cola nitida
Traditional uses of Cola nitida
Pharmacological potentials of Cola nitida
Pain and nociception
Causes of pain
Classification of pain
Peripheral mechanisms of sensory transmission
Cola nitida as a therapeutic agent for pain relief
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 34: Analgesic effects of Ephedra herb and ephedrine alkaloids-free Ephedra herb extract (EFE)
Abstract
Introduction
Ephedra herb and ephedrine alkaloids
Novel active ingredients, herbacetin-glycosides, in Ephedra herb and the analgesic effect of herbacetin, an active metabolite of herbacetin-glycosides
Development of ephedrine alkaloids-free Ephedra Herb extract (EFE)
Adverse effects of EHE and safety of EFE
Analgesic effects of EHE and EFE on formalin-induced pain
Analgesic effects of EHE, EFE, ephedrine, and pseudoephedrine on formalin-induced pain
Analgesic effect of EFE on pain in arthritis model mouse
Reduction of capsaicin-induced pain via transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV-1) by EHE
Application to other areas
Conclusions and perspectives
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 35: Euphorbia bicolor (Euphorbiaceae) latex phytochemicals and applications to analgesia
Abstract
Introduction
Medicinal properties of the Euphorbia species
Medicinal properties of E. bicolor latex
Identification of E. bicolor latex phytochemicals
Evidence of pain-relieving properties of the E. bicolor latex phytochemicals
Development of E. bicolor phytochemicals as phytomedicines for pain management
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about coumestans
Key facts about diterpenes
Key facts about flavonoids
Key facts about isoflavones
Summary points
References
Chapter 36: Analgesic properties and mechanisms of action of Muntingia calabura extracts: A review
Abstract
Introduction
Muntingia calabura L
Antinociceptive activity of Muntigia calabura leaves extracts
Mechanisms of action underlying the antinociceptive activity of Muntingia calabura leaves extracts
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of traditional and complementary medicine
Summary points
References
Chapter 37: Resolving neuroinflammation and pain with maresin 1, a specialized pro-resolving lipid mediator
Abstract
Introduction
MaR1
Analgesic effects of MaR1
Clinical analgesic evidence of MaR1 and its precursors
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 38: Therapeutic role of naringenin to alleviate inflammatory pain
Abstract
Introduction
Naringenin actions on transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and inflammatory pain relief
Naringenin inhibits the production of endogenous cytokines that mediate inflammatory pain
Naringenin targets oxidative stress to reduce inflammatory pain
Analgesic pathways actively induced by naringenin
Naringenin modulates transcription factors and miRNA
Clinical applicability and safety
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of inflammatory pain
Summary points
Funding
References
Chapter 39: Analgesic properties of plants from the genus Solanum L. (Solanaceae)
Abstract
Introduction
Solanum genus L. (Solanaceae)
Antinociceptive effects of Solanum spp. extracts
Antiinflammatory activity of Solanum spp. extracts
Type of analgesia produced by Solanum spp. extracts
Chemical constituents of active extracts
Other pharmaco-toxicological activities of interest
Application to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of Solanum analgesia
Other agents of interest
Summary points
References
Chapter 40: Dietary constituents act as local anesthetic agents: Neurophysiological mechanism of nociceptive pain
Abstract
Introduction
Ascending pain pathway in trigeminal system
Sensory transduction and noxious transmission
Possible molecular targets for local anesthetic agents
Peripheral mechanism for potential candidates of dietary constituents as local anesthetic agents
Functional significance for dietary constituents as local anesthetic agents
Future direction
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 41: Pain response following prenatal stress and its modulation by antioxidants
Abstract
Introduction
Oxidative stress
Antioxidant
Honey
Protective effects of other antioxidants in the prenatally stressed offspring
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of prenatal stress
Key facts of antioxidants
Summary points
References
Chapter 42: Physical activity and exercise in the prevention of musculoskeletal pain in children and adolescents
Abstract
Background
Physical activity in the prevention of musculoskeletal pain
Physical fitness components in the prevention of musculoskeletal pain
Risk factors for MSKP and the preventive role of physical activity and exercise
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 43: Linking aerobic exercise and childhood pain alleviation: A narrative
Abstract
Introduction
Aerobic activity levels in youth with chronic pain
Effect of aerobic exercise on pediatric chronic pain intensity
Current literature on effect of aerobic exercise on chronic pediatric pain intensity
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 44: Physical activity and exercise in the management of chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain: A focus on fibromyalgia
Abstract
Musculoskeletal pain
Physical activity in musculoskeletal pain: A historical perspective
Levels of physical activity in musculoskeletal pain
Interventions to enhance physical activity in musculoskeletal pain: Current evidence and novel approaches
Physical exercise in musculoskeletal pain
General advice to design physical exercise programs for chronic musculoskeletal pain
Physical activity in fibromyalgia
Aerobic exercise in fibromyalgia
Resistance training in fibromyalgia
Multicomponent exercise in fibromyalgia
Mind-body exercise in fibromyalgia
Exergames in fibromyalgia
General exercise recommendations
Effectiveness of physical exercise in fibromyalgia: A summary of the evidence
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 45: Spinal cord stimulation and limb pain
Abstract
History
Conventional tonic SCS
Dorsal root ganglion stimulation
High frequency 10 kHz SCS
Burst SCS
Ischemic pain
Patient selection
Outcomes
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of spinal cord stimulation and limb pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 46: Effectiveness of neural mobilization on pain and disability in individuals with musculoskeletal disorders
Abstract
Introduction
Headache and neck pain
Cervicobrachial pain
Median, cubital, and radial nerves entrapment syndromes
Low back pain
Lower limb and neurodynamic techniques
Clinical applications
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of musculoskeletal disorders
Summary points
References
Chapter 47: Virtual reality and applications to treating neck pain
Abstract
Introduction
Neck pain and VR-based rehabilitation
VR systems design in NP rehabilitation
Clinical efficacy of VR in neck disorders
Kinematic impairments
Disability
Postural control and balance impairment
Factors affecting the efficacy of VR-based treatment in NP
VR application as an assessment tool in NP
Disadvantages of VR application in NP
Conclusions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of VR
Summary points
References
Chapter 48: Virtual reality induced analgesia and dental pain
Abstract
Introduction
Distraction as an approach to relieve injection discomfort
Virtual reality devices in dental pain management
Safety considerations
Effectiveness of VR in reduction of injection discomfort
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of the use of VR devices in dental pain management
Summary points
References
Chapter 49: Vibrotactile devices, DentalVibe, and local anesthesia
Abstract
Introduction
Non-pharmacological approach to injection discomfort
Melzack and Wall’s gate control theory of pain
Fear of dental injections
Reduction of discomfort during local anesthesia
Vibrotactile devices for dental use
Effectiveness in reduction of injection discomfort
Evaluation of the efficacy of vibrotactile devices
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of vibrotactile devices for dental use
Summary points
References
Chapter 50: Cooled radiofrequency ablation as a treatment for knee osteoarthritis
Abstract
Introduction
Nonpharmacological and pharmacological conservative treatments
Minimally invasive and surgical approaches
Denervation treatment in knee osteoarthritis
Cryoablation
Radiofrequency ablation
Clinical trials of radiofrequency ablation
Other studies of radiofrequency ablation
Summary of radiofrequency ablation
Cooled radiofrequency ablation
Clinical trials of cooled radiofrequency ablation
Other studies of cooled radiofrequency ablation
Summary of cooled radiofrequency ablation
Applications to other areas
Other ablative procedures of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of cooled radiofrequency ablation
Summary points
References
Chapter 51: Nonpharmacologic analgesic therapies: A focus on photobiomodulation, acustimulation, and cryoanalgesia (ice) therapy
Abstract
Introduction
Photobiomodulation therapy
Acustimulation
Cryoanalgesia (ice) therapy
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of nonpharmacologic analgesic therapies
Summary points
References
Chapter 52: New coping strategies and self-education for chronic pain management: E-health
Abstract
Introduction
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of chronic pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 53: Postoperative pain management: Truncal blocks in obstetric and gynecologic surgery
Abstract
Introduction
Preparation for the truncal block
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Volume 3: The Neurobiology, Physiology, and Psychology of Pain
Part I: Molecular and cellular aspects
Chapter 1: KCNQ/Kv7 channels as therapeutic target to treat neuropathic pain
Abstract
Introduction
KCNQ/Kv7 channel family members
KCNQ channels in primary sensory neurons and their contribution to neuropathic pain
KCNQ channels as therapeutic target to treat neuropathic pain
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of KCNQ/Kv7 channels and neuropathic pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 2: A new mutation in NTRK1 gene is associated with congenital insensitivity to pain without anhidrosis
Abstract
Introduction
The applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 3: Prdm12, a key transcriptional regulator of the nociceptive lineage
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts showing the importance of Prdm12 in nociceptors
Summary points
References
Chapter 4: Genetics of chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain
Abstract
Introduction
Heritability of chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain
Candidate gene studies in chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain
GWAS
Interactions (gene-gene and gene-environment)
Future perspectives (mainly, research agenda)
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 5: Fentanyl: Polymorphisms, and adverse events
Abstract
Opioid fentanyl use in pain management
Potential pharmacogenetics markers in fentanyl pain management
Barriers to implementation
Conclusions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of fentanyl
Summary points
References
Chapter 6: Propofol anesthesia and molecular changes in the brain
Abstract
Introduction
Formulation matter
Neural and molecular targets of propofol
Propofol-induced brain molecular changes during postanesthesia period
Molecular autograph of longer exposures to propofol at the peak of the brain growth spurt
Propofol and age-related brain pathology
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of propofol anesthesia and molecular changes in the brain
Summary points
References
Chapter 7: Protein kinase G is a molecular switch for pain
Abstract
Introduction
Pain is perceived via inputs from nociceptive circuits that are adaptive
LTH is induced by protein kinase G, a positive injury signal in nociceptive neurons
Development of a novel potent PKG inhibitor
Conclusions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 8: Adrenergic agonists and antagonists enhance opioid receptor activity
Abstract
Introduction
Anatomical and cellular codistribution of opioid and adrenergic functions
Mechanisms of adrenergic receptor-opioid receptor cross-talk
A model of adrenoceptor-opioid receptor cross-talk
Synergistic effects of adrenergic-opioid receptor cross-talk in the treatment of pain
Prevention of desensitization and mutual resensitization of opioid and adrenergic receptor function by each other’s ligands
Applications to other areas: Local anesthetic enhancement and opioid sparing uses
Other agents of interest: Ascorbic acid, tramadol and tapentadol, and ketamine
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 9: Inflammatory and neuropathic pain impact on the opioid function in the mesocorticolimbic system
Abstract
Introduction
A short introduction to the opioid receptors
The endogenous opioid system: A key component of analgesia, reward, and aversion
Chronic pain alters brain function and connectivity recruiting motivational and emotional regions
PET imaging confirms pain-induced alterations of ORs in the MCLS during pain
Preclinical studies show altered MOR density or function derived from the presence of pain
Animal models of pain showed altered DA-related behaviors derived from the pharmacological activation of MORs
Inflammatory pain promotes increased opioid self-administration
Dynorfin/KOR system (Dyn/KOR) of the MCLS: A new key player in pain field
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of pain-induced changes in OR function
Summary points
References
Chapter 10: Clinacanthus nutans L., analgesia, and the l-arginine/nitric oxide-mediated/cyclic-guanosine monophosphate-independent pathway
Abstract
Introduction
Clinacanthus nutans L.
Report on findings related to the antinociceptive activity of C. nutans
Antinociceptive profile of PEP and the possible mechanisms of antinociception
Phytoconstituents of MCNL and PEP
Conclusion based on the reported antinociceptive activity of MCNL and PEP
Involvement of peripheral and central antinociceptive mechanisms
Involvement of various mechanisms of antinociception
Involvement of specific opioidergic system subtypes
Role of nonopioidergic systems
Involvement of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptors, glutamatergic system, protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated pathway, and bradykininergic system
Involvement of α2-adrenergic, β-adrenergic, adenosinergic, dopaminergic, or muscarinic cholinergic receptor systems
Involvement of various types of K+ channels
Role of NO-mediated pathways
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 11: The orally bioavailable imidazodiazepine, KRM-II-81, is a novel potentiator of α2/3-containing GABAA receptors with analgesic efficacy
Abstract
Introduction
GABA receptors
GABAA receptor potentiating benzodiazepines and pain
Alpha 2/3-containing GABAA receptors
KRM-II-81
KRM-II-81 and pain
Side effect burden
Applications to other therapeutic areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Further reading
Chapter 12: Extrasynaptic α5GABAA receptors and their role in nociception and pathological pain
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
GABAA receptors
Expression of α5GABAA receptors at spinal cord and DRG
GABAergic tonic current in the spinal cord
GABAergic tonic current in spinal cord in mammals
Extrasynaptic α5GABAA receptors in the rate-dependent depression (RDD) of the Hoffmann reflex (HR)
Function of extrasynaptic α5GABAA receptors in primary afferent fibers
Extrasynaptic spinal α5GABAA receptors in pain
Extrasynaptic α5GABAA receptors regulation
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts on α5GABAA receptors in pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 13: ATP-sensitive potassium channels in pain and analgesia
Abstract
ATP-sensitive potassium channels (Katp)
Possible role for Katp channels in primary nociceptive neurons during hyperglycemia
Katp involvement in the mechanisms of analgesic substances
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 14: Astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle and pain
Abstract
Introduction
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 15: Nociception and sweet solutions: Applications to inflammatory pain
Abstract
Introduction
Inflammatory pain pathways
Pain behaviors and assessment
Use of sweet solutions for inflammatory pain
Mechanisms of sweet solutions for inflammatory pain
Sweet tasting solutions used for analgesia
Clinical applications
Importance of treatment of neonatal pain
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 16: Interlinking interleukin-33 (IL-33), neuroinflammation and neuropathic pain
Abstract
IL-33
Neuropathic pain and glial cells
IL-33 and glial cells
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of IL-33 in neuropathic pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 17: Neurons of the parabrachial nucleus, nociceptive input, and pain pathways
Abstract
Introduction
Anatomy of the PBN
Afferent pain transmitting pathways to the LPB
Nociceptive neurons in the LPB and their aversive pathway to amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)
CGRP-positive neurons in the PBel
Nociceptive neurons in the LPB and their autonomic connection with the hypothalamus
Pain-modulating pathways from the LPB
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 18: Anterior cingulate cortex, pain perception, and pathological neuronal plasticity during chronic pain
Abstract
Introduction
ACC is a critical hub linking neuronal circuits for nociception and emotion
ACC activation is associated with the affective component of pain
ACC neuronal activity mediates pain-induced negative affect
Nociception-related neurons in the ACC
Distinct cortical representation of acute and chronic pain
Pathological neuronal plasticity in the ACC associated to chronic pain
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 19: Sleep deprivation, headache, and Fos immunohistochemistry
Abstract
Introduction
Pain, headache, and sleep deprivation
The pathophysiologic relationship between sleep deprivation and headache
Modulation of headache and sleep-wake cycles
Pharmacologic relationships between headache and sleep
Experimental research to examine headache and sleep deprivation
Experimental studies of sleep deprivation and headache pain
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 20: Antinociceptive glucagon-like peptides
Abstract
Introduction to the glucagon-like peptides
Applications to other areas
Glucagon-like peptide-1 and its analogs
Glucagon-like peptide-2
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of glucagon-like peptides
Summary points
References
Chapter 21: Pain transmission and peripheral group III metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs)
Abstract
Introduction
Glutamate metabolism in peripheral nervous system
Glutamate release and pain
Glutamate receptor signaling: iGluR and mGluR
Localization of peripheral group III mGluR
Negative modulation of pain transmission
Group III mGluRs in non-neuronal glial cells
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of activity-dependent inhibition
Summary points
References
Chapter 22: TRPM8 receptor and menthol in pain management
Abstract
Introduction
Transient receptor potential channels
Menthol
Multimodal pain therapy
Posttraumatic and postoperative pain
Musculoskeletal pain
Neuropathic pain
Headache and migraine
Pregnant and lactating women
Children and adolescent
Elderly
Obesity
Other agents of interest
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of TRPM8 receptor and menthol
Summary points
References
Further reading
Part II: Physiology, imaging and physical recordings
Chapter 23: Anesthetic and proconvulsant effects of ketamine on EEG
Abstract
Introduction
Ketamine effects as anesthetic
Ketamine effects as proconvulsant
EEG analysis of ketamine effects
Scalp vs intracranial EEG effects of ketamine in nonhuman primate model of an idiopathic generalized epilepsy
Effects of other agents on EEG
Key facts of anesthetic and proconvulsant effects of ketamine on EEG
Summary points
References
Chapter 24: Electroencephalography and anesthetic doses of ketamine
Abstract
Introduction
Spectral EEG changes
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 25: Linking heart function and analgesia
Abstract
Introduction
Analgesic drugs
Application to other areas: Effects of NSAIDs on the kidney
Other agents of interest: Adjuvants
Mini-dictionary of terms
Summary points
References
Chapter 26: Computed tomography-guided procedures for epidural injections
Abstract
Introduction
General principles and technique common to all types of CT-guided epidural injections
Epidural injections
Radiation safety
Complications
Conclusion
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 27: Chronic pain: Linking deep brain stimulation and sensory functional MRI
Abstract
Introduction
History of deep brain stimulation for chronic pain
Central pain processing
Modern visualization of DBS targets
Application to other areas
Other methods of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 28: Neurocognition and placebo analgesia: Linking in functional magnetic resonance imaging
Abstract
Introduction
Understanding the placebo effect: From the biological approach to the advent of neuroimaging techniques
Pain modulatory mechanisms relevant for the neuroimaging study of PA
Pain and nociceptive stimuli in neuroimaging study of PA
Pain evaluation and temporal phases in neuroimaging study of PA
Sample characteristic relevant for the neuroimaging study of PA
Neurocognitive predictors in neuroimaging study of PA: Attention, expectation, and reappraisal
The neuroimaging meta-analytic approach to the study of PA and related neurocognitive factors
Neuroimaging findings in the study of PA in Alzheimer’s disease
Future directions
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of functional magnetic resonance imaging
Summary points
References
Chapter 29: Linking the cortex, functional spectroscopy, and pain: Features and applications
Abstract
Basic concepts
Cortical functions related to pain processing
Role of the motor cortex in pain processing
Role of the PFC in pain processing
Nature of brain regions recruited during pain: Insights from human imaging studies
The biological rationale behind near-infrared spectroscopy
fNIRS neuroimaging: Technical aspects, advantages, limitations, and applications
The sequence of steps to perform neuroscience studies using fNIRS
Applications of fNIRS in pain research
fNIRS and cortical connectivity in pain research
Remarks and future directions
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key factors related to fNIRS
Summary points
References
Chapter 30: Muscle origins of myofascial pain syndrome
Abstract
Introduction
Nociception in muscle tissue
Referred pain and peripheral sensitization process
Sympathetic facilitation of muscle pain
Central sensitization
Clinical applications
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of myofascial pain
Summary points
References
Part III: Psychology and behavior
Chapter 31: Behavioral markers of pain: Understanding the cognitive, motor, and societal interactions in the pain experience
Abstract
Psychology and cognition
Motor behavior
Social interactions and pain behavior convention
What is coming in the next 5–10 years?
Conclusion
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 32: Adverse life events, sensitization of spinal nociception, and chronic pain risk
Abstract
Adverse life events: A definition
Adverse life events and health
Adverse life events and chronic pain
The impact of adversity (stress) on nociception in animals
Pain systems and their assessment in humans
Adversity and pain processing in humans
Adversity, latent sensitization, and pain risk
Implications and future directions
Summary
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts about adversity
Summary points
References
Chapter 33: Cognitive-affective modulation of pain: The placebo and nocebo phenomena and their impact on pain treatment
Abstract
Introduction
Psychological mechanisms of placebo analgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia
Neurobiological and neurochemical mechanisms of placebo analgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia
The relevance of placebo and nocebo effects for pain treatment in clinical practice
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of placebo analgesia
Key facts of nocebo hyperalgesia
Summary points
References
Chapter 34: Nociception-related behavioral phenotypes in adult zebrafish
Abstract
Introduction
Nociception and pain in animal models
Zebrafish as animal model for translational pain research
Zebrafish-based pain models
Applications to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts
Summary points
References
Chapter 35: Pain, implantable pain devices, and psychosocial aspects of pain
Abstract
Anatomy of pain pathways
Psychosocial aspects of neuropathic pain
Rationale for psychosocial evaluations
Effect of spinal cord stimulation on pain processing
Effects of modes of stimulation on psychosocial aspects of pain
Conclusions
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of pain, implantable devices, and psychosocial aspects of pain
Summary points
References
Chapter 36: Influence of psychological factors on myofascial pain
Abstract
Introduction
Application to other areas
Other agents of interest
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key facts of myofascial pain
Summary points
References
Part IV: Resources
Chapter 37: Recommended resources, sites, and research groups for the neuroscience of anesthetics and analgesics
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Resources
Applications to other areas
Mini-dictionary of terms
Key points
Summary points
References
Index for Volume 1
Index for Volume 2
Index for Volume 3

Rajkumar Rajendram

Dr Rajkumar Rajendram is a clinician scientist with a focus on internal medicine, anaesthesia, intensive care and peri-operative medicine. He graduated with distinctions from Guy’s, King’s and St. Thomas Medical School, King’s College London in 2001. As an undergraduate he was awarded several prizes, merits and distinctions in pre-clinical and clinical subjects.

Dr Rajendram began his post-graduate medical training in general medicine and intensive care in Oxford. He attained membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) in 2004 and completed specialist training in acute and general medicine in Oxford in 2010. Dr Rajendram subsequently practiced as a Consultant in Acute General Medicine at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford.

Dr Rajendram also trained in anaesthesia and intensive care in London and was awarded a fellowship of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (FRCA) in 2009. He completed advanced training in regional anaesthesia and intensive care. He was awarded a fellowship of the Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine (FFICM) in 2013 and obtained the European diploma of intensive care medicine (EDIC) in 2014. He then moved to the Royal Free London Hospitals as a Consultant in Intensive Care, Anaesthesia and Peri-operative Medicine. He has been a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (FRCP Edin) and the Royal College of Physicians of London (FRCP Lond) since 2017 and 2019 respectively. He is currently a Consultant in Internal Medicine at King Abdulaziz Medical City, National Guard Heath Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Dr Rajendram’s focus on improving outcomes from Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has involved research on point of care ultrasound and phenotypes of COVID-19. Dr Rajendram also recognises that nutritional support is a fundamental aspect of medical care. This is particularly important for patients with COVID-19. As a clinician scientist he has therefore devoted significant time and effort into nutritional science research and education. He is an affiliated member of the Nutritional Sciences Research Division of King’s College London and has published over 400 textbook chapters, review articles, peer-reviewed papers and abstracts.

Affiliations and expertise

Consultant in Internal Medicine, King Abdulaziz Medical City, National Guard Heath Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Vinood Patel

Vinood B. Patel, BSc, PhD, FRSC, is currently Professor in Clinical Biochemistry at the University of Westminster. In 2014 Dr Patel was elected as a Fellow to The Royal Society of Chemistry. Dr Patel graduated from the University of Portsmouth with a degree in Pharmacology and completed his PhD in protein metabolism from King’s College London in 1997. His postdoctoral work was carried out at Wake Forest University Baptist Medical School, NC, USA studying structural-functional alterations to mitochondrial ribosomes, where he developed novel techniques to characterize their biophysical properties. Research is being undertaken to study the role of nutrients, antioxidants, phytochemicals, iron, alcohol and fatty acids in the pathophysiology of liver disease. Other areas of interest are identifying new biomarkers that can be used for the diagnosis and prognosis of disease and understanding mitochondrial oxidative stress in neurological disorders and iron dysregulation in diabetes. Dr Patel is a nationally and internationally recognized researcher and has several edited biomedical books related to the use or investigation of active agents or components. These books include The Handbook of Nutrition, Diet, and Epigenetics, Branched Chain Amino Acids in Clinical Nutrition, Cancer: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants, Toxicology: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants, Molecular Nutrition: Vitamins, The Neuroscience of Pain, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. He is Editor of the ten-volume series Biomarkers in Disease: Methods, Discoveries and Applications.

Affiliations and expertise

Reader, Clinical Biochemistry, University of Westminster, London, UK

Victor R Preedy

Victor R. Preedy BSc, PhD, DSc, FRSB, FRSPH, FRSC, FRCPath graduated with an Honours Degree in Biology and Physiology with Pharmacology. After gaining his University of London PhD, he received his Membership of the Royal College of Pathologists. He was later awarded his second doctorate (DSc), for his contribution to protein metabolism in health and disease. He is Professor of Clinical Biochemistry (Hon) at King’s College Hospital and Emeritus Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry at King’s College London. He has Honorary Professorships at the University of Hull, and the University of Suffolk. Professor Preedy was the Founding Director and then long-term Director of the Genomics Centre at King’s College London from 2006 to 2020. Professor Preedy has been awarded fellowships of the Royal Society of Biology, the Royal College of Pathologists, the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, the Royal Institute of Public Health, the Royal Society for Public Health, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Royal Society of Medicine. He carried out research when attached to the National Heart Hospital (part of Imperial College London), The School of Pharmacy (now part of University College London) and the MRC Centre at Northwick Park Hospital. He has collaborated with international research groups in Finland, Japan, Australia, USA, and Germany. To his credit, Professor Preedy has published over 750 articles, which includes peer-reviewed manuscripts based on original research, abstracts and symposium presentations, reviews and edited books.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King’s College Hospital, London, UK; Emeritus Professor, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, UK Visiting Professor, University of Hull, UK

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The Neuroscience of Pain, Anesthetics, and Analgesics

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Rajkumar Rajendram

Vinood Patel

Victor R Preedy