The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis
Chemistry, Pharmacology, Manufacturing, Use, and Control of Medicinal Cannabis and Cannabinoid Dosage Formulations
- 2nd Edition - November 1, 2026
- Latest edition
- Authors: Brian F. Thomas, Mahmoud A. ElSohly, Suman Chandra
- Language: English
The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Manufacturing, Use, and Control of Medicinal Cannabis and Cannabinoid Dosage Formulations: Second Edition presents… Read more
Description
Description
The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Manufacturing, Use, and Control of Medicinal Cannabis and Cannabinoid Dosage Formulations: Second Edition presents advanced methods in analytical chemistry to address modern issues surrounding cannabis-based products. Since the first edition, the cannabis industry has rapidly expanded its array of recreational and medicinal products. This volume provides crucial methods to support the manufacturing, labeling, and distribution of safe, consistent products with known chemical content and performance. It offers updated information on the chemistry and pharmacology of cannabis and cannabinoids and aims to resolve industry challenges by fostering understanding among scientists, public health officials, and non-scientist stakeholders.
The book is valuable for professionals in analytical chemistry, pharmacology, medicine, and law enforcement, as well as for advanced academic courses in related fields.
Key features
Key features
- Addresses current and emerging analytical chemistry methods, a unique approach among the literature on this topic
- Presents information from a broad perspective on a range of issues in a single, concise volume
- Employs language comprehensible to non-technical stakeholders as well as to specialists in analytical chemistry
- Includes core concepts in botany, analytical chemistry, and dosage formulation, as well as quality control and assurance
Readership
Readership
Analytical chemists, pharmacologists, medical doctors, clinical trials specialists, public health officials, international food and drug monitoring agencies, forensics specialists, law enforcement officers. Students and teachers on advanced undergraduate and graduate level courses in pharmacy, pharmacology, experimental therapeutics, analytical chemistry, and forensics
Table of contents
Table of contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to cannabis, cannabinoids, and cannabimimetics
Varieties of Cannabis sativa
Phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids
Endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands (endocannabinoids)
Synthetic cannabimimetics and cannabinoid receptor antagonists/inverse agonists
Increasing use, oversight, and regulation
Close-up: Occupational hazards, chemical warfare agents, and convicted “volunteers”
References
Chapter 2 The endocannabinoid signaling system
Introduction
Cannabinoid receptors
Ligand bias and non-canonical signaling
Allosteric modulation of CB1 and CB2
CB1 negative allosteric modulators
CB1 positive allosteric modulators
CB2 allosteric modulation
Endocannabinoid system and synaptic function in neurons
Endocannabinoid system tone
Receptor trafficking, desensitization, and adaptive regulation
Physiological adaptations, dependence, and recovery
References
Chapter 3 Cannabis sativa L.: Botany, identification, propagation, and drug development
Introduction
Cannabinoids and other constituents in the cannabis plant
Cannabis biosynthesis
Cannabis classification
Botanical
Phytochemical (chemotype)
Identification of cannabis
Morphological characteristics
Macroscopic identification
Microscopic identification
Cannabis propagation
Screening mother plants for vegetative and micropropagation
Indoor cultivation
Outdoor cultivation
Harvesting
Post-harvest handling
Drying
Manicuring
Quality control of cannabis biomass
Storage of cannabis
Extraction and decarboxylation of cannabinoids
Cannabis based drug development: Pure compounds vs. botanical drug
References
Chapter 4 Cannabis preparations and cannabinoid dosage forms
Introduction
Cannabis strains, dosage formulations, and routes of administration
Cannabis inflorescence and derived dosage formulations
Teas, tinctures, oils, and extracts
Consumables
Formulations for transmucosal administration
Formulations for topical or transdermal administration
Formulations for intraocular administration and ophthalmic indications
Formulations for parenteral administration
Chemical delivery and exposure profiles
Smoking and vaporizing
Oral administration
Transmucosal administration
Topical or transdermal routes of administration
Parenteral routes of administration
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Introduction
Sampling strategies for cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Sample processing
Solvent extraction
Matrix-specific sample preparation and extraction considerations
Analytical methods
Gas chromatography
Liquid chromatography
Supercritical fluid chromatography, ultraperformance convergence chromatography, and other techniques used for separation and analysis of chemicals in complex matrices
Direct spectroscopic methods for quantitation of cannabinoids and other analytes of interest
Terpene analysis
Residual solvents
Moisture content and water activity
Additional contaminant testing methods used for cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Analytical methods for pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides
Heavy metals and inorganic contaminant testing
Mycotoxins and microbiological contaminants in cannabis products
Product and performance testing
Strength (assay) testing
Constituent profiling
Purity and impurity analysis
Identity testing
Content uniformity and homogeneity
Standardized doses versus product heterogeneity: cannabis compared with alcohol
Disintegration and dissolution testing
Inhalation product performance and smoke/aerosol characterization
Particle size characterization: methods, metrics, and relevance to cannabis inhalation products
Thermal analysis and material science techniques
Packaging materials and chemical compatibility
Labeling accuracy and strength representation
Advanced analytical techniques for comprehensive cannabis profiling
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Quality control and stability assessment
Inadequate standardization and regulation
Variability in composition and strength
Content and labeling inaccuracies and violations
Foods and pharmaceuticals
Best practices and quality control
Good agricultural and collection practices
Good laboratory practice (GLP) and good manufacturing practice (GMP)
In-process and release testing and characterization of chemical delivery
Forced degradation and stress testing
Stability assessment for specification of shelf-life or retest period
Analysis and interpretation of stability data
Analysis and interpretation of long-term stability data and determination of shelf-life
Stability and degradation of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-containing products
Additional considerations
Close-up: Cannabis quality assurance?
References
Chapter 7 In vitro bioanalytical methods for characterization of cannabinoid receptor interaction and cellular signaling response mechanisms
Characterization of drug-receptor interactions
Saturation binding
Binding displacement
Kinetic binding
Determination of drug efficacy in receptor signal transduction assays
GTP-γ-[35S] binding assays
CB1/CB2-mediated second messenger systems
Inhibition of adenylate cyclase
β-arrestin recruitment and receptor internalization
Summary
References
Chapter 8 Bioanalytical methods for analysis of endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands
Introduction
Isolation and handling of biological matrices for quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Extraction of endocannabinoids from biological samples
Liquid-liquid extraction
Solid phase extraction
Solvent properties, selection, and use in sample preparation and analysis
Derivatization of endocannabinoids prior to quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Gas chromatography-based approaches for separation and detection of endocannabinoids
Liquid chromatography-based methods for separation and detection of endocannabinoids
Non-chromatographic methods for quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Methods for in situ imaging of endocannabinoids
Calibration and quantitation of endocannabinoids in biological matrices
Summary
References
Chapter 9 Bioanalytical methods for quantitation of exogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands in biological fluids and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis
Introduction
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of exogenous cannabinoids and their metabolites in biological matrices
Immunoassays
Direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry and other ambient sampling and ionization techniques
Thin-layer chromatography and paper-based analytical methods
Gas chromatographic analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological matrices
GC-MS: Ionization interfaces and detection technologies
Liquid chromatography methods for the analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological matrices
Commonly used liquid chromatography separation modes
Detection of cannabinoids in biological matrices after separation by liquid chromatography
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods for analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological fluids
Ionization techniques for LC–MS
Liquid chromatography and single quadrupole mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and quadrupole or linear ion trap mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and Orbitrap mass spectrometry
Ion-mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry
Advanced data analytics in mass spectrometry
Radiometric methods
Characterization of the pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids
Pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids and their metabolites
Close-up: What’s in a name? Kendrick mass scale and its modern usages
References
Chapter 10 The role of research and regulation in the therapeutic and recreational use of cannabinoids and cannabis in the future
Introduction
Historical and international baseline
U.S. federal framework and research supply
State landscape and federal-state friction
Implications for consumers and public health
Implications for pharmaceutical manufacturers and drug discovery and development
Implications for researchers
Analytical standards and methods
Clinical evidence and indications
Quality, safety, and product categories
Emerging science and future directions
Policy options and harmonization
Practical recommendations
Conclusion
Close-up: Observations from an evolving and unregulated marketplace
References
Varieties of Cannabis sativa
Phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids
Endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands (endocannabinoids)
Synthetic cannabimimetics and cannabinoid receptor antagonists/inverse agonists
Increasing use, oversight, and regulation
Close-up: Occupational hazards, chemical warfare agents, and convicted “volunteers”
References
Chapter 2 The endocannabinoid signaling system
Introduction
Cannabinoid receptors
Ligand bias and non-canonical signaling
Allosteric modulation of CB1 and CB2
CB1 negative allosteric modulators
CB1 positive allosteric modulators
CB2 allosteric modulation
Endocannabinoid system and synaptic function in neurons
Endocannabinoid system tone
Receptor trafficking, desensitization, and adaptive regulation
Physiological adaptations, dependence, and recovery
References
Chapter 3 Cannabis sativa L.: Botany, identification, propagation, and drug development
Introduction
Cannabinoids and other constituents in the cannabis plant
Cannabis biosynthesis
Cannabis classification
Botanical
Phytochemical (chemotype)
Identification of cannabis
Morphological characteristics
Macroscopic identification
Microscopic identification
Cannabis propagation
Screening mother plants for vegetative and micropropagation
Indoor cultivation
Outdoor cultivation
Harvesting
Post-harvest handling
Drying
Manicuring
Quality control of cannabis biomass
Storage of cannabis
Extraction and decarboxylation of cannabinoids
Cannabis based drug development: Pure compounds vs. botanical drug
References
Chapter 4 Cannabis preparations and cannabinoid dosage forms
Introduction
Cannabis strains, dosage formulations, and routes of administration
Cannabis inflorescence and derived dosage formulations
Teas, tinctures, oils, and extracts
Consumables
Formulations for transmucosal administration
Formulations for topical or transdermal administration
Formulations for intraocular administration and ophthalmic indications
Formulations for parenteral administration
Chemical delivery and exposure profiles
Smoking and vaporizing
Oral administration
Transmucosal administration
Topical or transdermal routes of administration
Parenteral routes of administration
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Introduction
Sampling strategies for cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Sample processing
Solvent extraction
Matrix-specific sample preparation and extraction considerations
Analytical methods
Gas chromatography
Liquid chromatography
Supercritical fluid chromatography, ultraperformance convergence chromatography, and other techniques used for separation and analysis of chemicals in complex matrices
Direct spectroscopic methods for quantitation of cannabinoids and other analytes of interest
Terpene analysis
Residual solvents
Moisture content and water activity
Additional contaminant testing methods used for cannabis and cannabinoid-containing dosage formulations
Analytical methods for pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides
Heavy metals and inorganic contaminant testing
Mycotoxins and microbiological contaminants in cannabis products
Product and performance testing
Strength (assay) testing
Constituent profiling
Purity and impurity analysis
Identity testing
Content uniformity and homogeneity
Standardized doses versus product heterogeneity: cannabis compared with alcohol
Disintegration and dissolution testing
Inhalation product performance and smoke/aerosol characterization
Particle size characterization: methods, metrics, and relevance to cannabis inhalation products
Thermal analysis and material science techniques
Packaging materials and chemical compatibility
Labeling accuracy and strength representation
Advanced analytical techniques for comprehensive cannabis profiling
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Quality control and stability assessment
Inadequate standardization and regulation
Variability in composition and strength
Content and labeling inaccuracies and violations
Foods and pharmaceuticals
Best practices and quality control
Good agricultural and collection practices
Good laboratory practice (GLP) and good manufacturing practice (GMP)
In-process and release testing and characterization of chemical delivery
Forced degradation and stress testing
Stability assessment for specification of shelf-life or retest period
Analysis and interpretation of stability data
Analysis and interpretation of long-term stability data and determination of shelf-life
Stability and degradation of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-containing products
Additional considerations
Close-up: Cannabis quality assurance?
References
Chapter 7 In vitro bioanalytical methods for characterization of cannabinoid receptor interaction and cellular signaling response mechanisms
Characterization of drug-receptor interactions
Saturation binding
Binding displacement
Kinetic binding
Determination of drug efficacy in receptor signal transduction assays
GTP-γ-[35S] binding assays
CB1/CB2-mediated second messenger systems
Inhibition of adenylate cyclase
β-arrestin recruitment and receptor internalization
Summary
References
Chapter 8 Bioanalytical methods for analysis of endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands
Introduction
Isolation and handling of biological matrices for quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Extraction of endocannabinoids from biological samples
Liquid-liquid extraction
Solid phase extraction
Solvent properties, selection, and use in sample preparation and analysis
Derivatization of endocannabinoids prior to quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Gas chromatography-based approaches for separation and detection of endocannabinoids
Liquid chromatography-based methods for separation and detection of endocannabinoids
Non-chromatographic methods for quantitative analysis of endocannabinoids
Methods for in situ imaging of endocannabinoids
Calibration and quantitation of endocannabinoids in biological matrices
Summary
References
Chapter 9 Bioanalytical methods for quantitation of exogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands in biological fluids and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis
Introduction
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of exogenous cannabinoids and their metabolites in biological matrices
Immunoassays
Direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry and other ambient sampling and ionization techniques
Thin-layer chromatography and paper-based analytical methods
Gas chromatographic analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological matrices
GC-MS: Ionization interfaces and detection technologies
Liquid chromatography methods for the analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological matrices
Commonly used liquid chromatography separation modes
Detection of cannabinoids in biological matrices after separation by liquid chromatography
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods for analysis of exogenous cannabinoids in biological fluids
Ionization techniques for LC–MS
Liquid chromatography and single quadrupole mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and quadrupole or linear ion trap mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography and Orbitrap mass spectrometry
Ion-mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry
Advanced data analytics in mass spectrometry
Radiometric methods
Characterization of the pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids
Pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids and their metabolites
Close-up: What’s in a name? Kendrick mass scale and its modern usages
References
Chapter 10 The role of research and regulation in the therapeutic and recreational use of cannabinoids and cannabis in the future
Introduction
Historical and international baseline
U.S. federal framework and research supply
State landscape and federal-state friction
Implications for consumers and public health
Implications for pharmaceutical manufacturers and drug discovery and development
Implications for researchers
Analytical standards and methods
Clinical evidence and indications
Quality, safety, and product categories
Emerging science and future directions
Policy options and harmonization
Practical recommendations
Conclusion
Close-up: Observations from an evolving and unregulated marketplace
References
Product details
Product details
- Edition: 2
- Latest edition
- Published: November 1, 2026
- Language: English
About the authors
About the authors
BT
Brian F. Thomas
Brian F. Thomas earned his doctoral degree in 1992 from the Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University, USA. He then joined Research Triangle Institute and assumed the role of Principal Investigator on National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) research contracts titled “Purity Specifications, Storage and Distribution for Medications Development,” “Preparation and Distribution of Research Drug Products,” and “Production, Analysis and Distribution of Cannabis, Marijuana Cigarettes and Related Materials.” Serving in these roles, he coordinated the preparation and analysis of research drugs and substance abuse treatment medications at RTI for over 28 years. In addition to contract research, Dr. Thomas served as Principal Investigator on several NIDA R01 grant-funded research awards involving the characterization of cannabinoid ligand-receptor interactions and their relationship to in vivo pharmacological effects.
In 2019, he joined Canopy Growth Corporation as Senior Director, Analytical Chemistry, Discovery Sciences, and Pharmaceutics, where he had management oversight of drug substance and product testing to support preclinical and clinical studies of cannabinoids in accordance with regulatory guidance. He also directed the integration of medicinal chemistry and in vitro pharmacological screening approaches to support development of consumer products and drive clinical drug discovery and therapeutic product development and commercialization efforts. He was subsequently recruited by The Cronos Group to serve as the Director of Analytical Sciences, with management oversight of scientists at production and research and development facilities in the United States, Canada, and Israel. He also engaged with the US Hemp Roundtable and other trade and scientific organizations to provide critical input to regulations and regulatory oversight by state, federal, and international regulatory authorities. He is currently providing pharmaceutical consulting services as the Principal Scientist at Empirical Pharmaceutical Services, LLC. He also serves on the Scientific Advisory Boards of Bright Green Corporation and Biopharmaceutical Research Company, two of the cannabis companies selected by the US government to grow, manufacture, and sell, legally under federal and state laws, cannabis and cannabis-related products for research, pharmaceutical applications, and export. He has authored or co-authored over 120 peer-reviewed manuscripts and numerous book chapters, coauthored a book, and served as the Series Editor of Elsevier’s Emerging Issues in Analytical Chemistry.
Affiliations and expertise
Principal Scientist, Empirical Pharmaceutical Services, LLC, Manteo, NC, USAME
Mahmoud A. ElSohly
Mahmoud A. ElSohly is a Research Professor in National Center for Natural Products Research, Director of the Marijuana Project, and Professor of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery at the University of Mississippi. His Research has been continuously funded since 1981 by NIDA and other agencies. He holds more than 40 patents and has authored over 400 scholarly articles. He is also President and Laboratory Director of ElSohly Laboratories, Inc., a testing and drug development company in Oxford, Mississippi.
Affiliations and expertise
Research Professor, National Center for Natural Products Research and Professor of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, USASC
Suman Chandra
Dr. Suman Chandra earned his BS in Physical Sciences, MS in Physics, and MPhil in Environmental Plant Physiology with an emphasis on Biophysics from HNB Garhwal University. He completed his PhD in Plant Physiology at the High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Center, HNB Garhwal University. Dr. Chandra worked at the High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Center and the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment from 1992 to 2000. In 2001, he joined the University of Mississippi, where he currently serves as a Principal Scientist at the National Center for Natural Products Research and Research Professor of Biomolecular Sciences in the School of Pharmacy. He also serves as Co-Director of the NIDA Marijuana Project at the University of Mississippi. Dr. Chandra has over 25 years of experience in the field of cannabis and cannabinoid research and has authored or co-authored more than 100 publications and four scholarly books in the field. He also serves as the editorial board member of several scientific journals, including Frontiers in Plant Science, Scientific Reports, and Planta Medica.
Affiliations and expertise
Principal Scientist, National Center for Natural Product Research and Research Professor of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, USA