Stress: Neuroendocrinology and Neurobiology

Part I. Neuroendocrine Control of the Stress Response

• Chapter 1. Stress Neuroendocrinology: Highlights and Controversies
  • Introduction
  • Neuroendocrine and Autonomic Nervous Control of Stress Response
  • Thrifty Phenotype Hypothesis: Variance Between Studies and Broadened to Include Maternal Obesity and Diabetes
  • Genetic Susceptibility to Stress: Gene×Environment Interaction
  • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Autonomic Nervous System Apparently Dominant
  • Human Hippocampus and Major Depressive Disorder: Does Hippocampal Size Matter?
  • Gastroduodenal (Peptic) Ulcers: Stress–Helicobacter pylori Interactions
  • General Conclusions and Observations
• Chapter 2. Limbic Forebrain Modulation of Neuroendocrine Responses to Emotional Stress
  • Introduction
  • Kinds of Stress and Their Underpinnings
  • Limbic Modulation of the HPA Axis
  • Excitatory Modulation: Amygdala
  • Inhibitory Modulation: Hippocampal Formation and Medial Prefrontal Cortex
  • Mechanisms of HPA Modulation Following Repeated Stress Exposure
  • Future Perspective
• Chapter 3. Adrenergic Neurons in the CNS
  • Localization
  • Projections
  • Neurochemistry
  • Functions
  • Activating Stimuli
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 4. Noradrenergic Control of Arousal and Stress
  • Arousal-Promoting Actions of Central Norepinephrine
  • Broad Contributions of NE to Behavioral Responding in Stress
  • Clinical Implications
  • Summary
• Chapter 5. Evolution and Phylogeny of the Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Family of Peptides
  • Introduction
  • Evolution of the CRF Family in Chordates and Role With the HPA Axis
  • Prechordate Evolution of the CRF Family
• Chapter 6. Corticotropin-Releasing Factor and Urocortin Receptors
  • Introduction
  • Corticotropin-Releasing Factor and Urocortin Receptor Family
  • Pharmacology of CRF1 and CRF2 Receptors
  • Small Molecule Nonpeptide CRF1 Receptor Antagonists
  • Clinical Experience and Relevance
  • Summary and Conclusions
• Chapter 7. Tracking the Coupling of External Signals to Intracellular Programs Controlling Peptide Synthesis and Release in Hypothalamic Neuroendocrine Neurons
  • Introduction
  • The PVH and CRH Neuroendocrine Neurons
  • Hindbrain Catecholamine Inputs to the CRH Neuroendocrine System
  • In Vivo Interrogation of Catecholamine-CRH Neuron Coupling
  • MAP Kinase as a Rapidly Activated Intracellular Effector in CRH Neuroendocrine Neurons In Vivo
  • Catecholamines Are Sufficient to Recapitulate Effects of Glycemic Challenges on CRH Neurons
  • Catecholaminergic Projections From Hindbrain Are Necessary for CRH Responses to Glycemic Challenges
  • A Model for CRH Neuroendocrine Neuron Signal-Effector Coupling
  • Extending the Study to a Larger Network: Focus on the Arcuate Hypothalamic Nucleus
  • Future Directions
• Chapter 8. Neural Circuitry of Stress, Fear, and Anxiety: Focus on Extended Amygdala Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Systems
  • Introduction: Corticotropin-Releasing Factor
  • Organization of the EA CRF System
  • Extending the Amygdala: CRF Systems and the Neural Circuitry of Stress, Fear, and Anxiety
  • Reciprocal Connections Between EA CRF and Serotonergic Systems Modulate Anxiety
  • EA CRF Projections to the Locus Coeruleus Facilitate Stress-Induced Arousal and Anxiety States
  • EA CRF System at the Interface of Stress and Motivation/Reward
  • EA CRF Neurons Receives Peptidergic Input From the Parabrachial Nucleus
  • CRF Interaction With the Brain Renin-Angiotensin System
  • EA CRF Neurons and Central Autonomic Control
  • EA CRF Neurons Modulate Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis Activity
  • Conclusions and Future Directions
• Chapter 9. Vasopressin as a Stress Hormone
  • Introduction
  • Vasopressin and Its Distribution in the Brain and the Pituitary Gland
  • Molecular and Cellular Physiology of Vasopressin With Special Reference to Anterior Pituitary Corticotrope Cells
  • Functions of Vasopressin
  • Summary
• Chapter 10. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
  • Introduction
  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Proopiomelanocortin
  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Production and Release From Pituitary Corticotropes
  • Control of Secretion
  • Negative Feedback Mechanisms
  • Clinical Perspectives
  • Other Effects of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
  • Therapeutic Uses
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 11. The Role of MicroRNAs in Stress-Induced Psychopathologies
  • Introduction
  • microRNAs
  • The Role of miRNAs in Fear Conditioning
  • Transgenerational Effects of Stress Mediated by Sperm miRNAs
  • Circulating miRNAs as Biomarkers for Stress-Related Psychopathologies
  • Open Questions and Future Directions
  • Concluding Remarks
• Chapter 12. Stress Reactions Orchestrate Parasympathetic Functioning and Inflammation Under Diverse Cholinergic Manipulations
  • Introduction
  • Body to Brain Signaling of Stress and Inflammation
  • MicroRNAs-Driven Cholinergic Modulation of Inflammation
  • New Technologies: RNA-Sequence Profiling and Chemically Protected Antisense Oligonucleotides
  • Summary and Future Prospects
• Chapter 13. Early Life Stress- and Sex-Dependent Effects on Hippocampal Neurogenesis
  • Stress, Time Domains, and Mediators of the Stress Response
  • Adult Neurogenesis
  • Stress and Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis
  • Long-Lasting Effects of Early, Perinatal Stress Exposure; Sex Differences
  • Concluding Remarks
• Chapter 14. Stress, Alcohol and Epigenetic Transmission
  • The Stress Response System
  • Alcohol (Ethanol) and the Stress Response
  • Alcohol, Epigenetic and Stress Response
  • Transgenerational Effect of Alcohol Epigenetic Marks
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 15. Stress, Panic, and Central Serotonergic Inhibition
  • Introduction
  • Neurobiology of Panic Disorder and Panic Attacks
  • Anatomical and Functional Heterogeneity of Serotonergic Systems
  • Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DR) Innervation of Escape- or Panic-Related Structures
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 16. Neuroendocrinology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Focus on the HPA Axis
  • Introduction: Adapative and Maladaptive Responses of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis
  • Negative Feedback/Glucocorticoid Receptor
  • Perturbations of the HPA Axis as a Vulnerability Factor in the Development of PTSD
  • Conclusions and Future Directions
• Chapter 17. Stress and Major Depression: Neuroendocrine and Biopsychosocial Mechanisms
  • Introduction
  • Neuroendocrine Mechanisms of Normal Stress Response
  • Neuroendocrine Abnormalities in Chronic Stress and Depression
  • Mechanisms of Antidepressant Action
  • Psychosocial Stress and Depression: A Biopsychosocial Perspective
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 18. Telomeres and Early Life Stress
  • Introduction
  • An Introduction to Telomere Biology
  • Factors Impacting Telomere Length
  • Telomeres in Human Health and Disease
  • Early Life Stress and Telomeres
  • Potential Mechanisms Underlying the Association Between Early Life Stress and Telomere Length
  • Methodological Issues in Studies of Telomeres and Early Life Stress
  • Effects of Telomeres on Cellular Biology
  • Future Directions

Part II. Endocrine Systems and Mechanisms in Stress Control

• Chapter 19. Stress, Glucocorticoids, and Brain Development in Rodent Models
  • Introduction
  • Stressors, Glucocorticoids, and the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis
  • Fetal Period
  • Neonatal Period
  • Adolescence
  • Conclusions and New Directions
• Chapter 20. Aging and Adrenocortical Factors
  • Introduction
  • The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis
  • The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis and Normal Aging
  • Theories Relating to Age-Related Change
  • Summary and Conclusion
• Chapter 21. Aldosterone and Mineralocorticoid Receptors
  • Background
  • Aldosterone Secretion: Adrenal and Extraadrenal
  • Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion
  • Mineralocorticoid Receptors: Cloning
  • Mineralocorticoid Receptors: Characterization
  • Aldosterone Specificity-Conferring Mechanisms: Transcortin, 11βHSD2
  • Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess
  • Extraepithelial Actions of Aldosterone
  • Aldosterone, Cardiac Hypertrophy, and Cardiac Fibrosis
  • Aldosterone: a Stress Hormone?
  • MR Activation and Stress
  • Primary Aldosteronism
  • Glossary
• Chapter 22. Androgen Action and Stress
  • Androgens Major Forms of Androgens
  • The Androgen Receptor
  • Physiological Actions of Androgens
  • Androgen-Associated Pathology
  • Interactions Between Stress and Androgens
  • Summary
• Chapter 23. Angiotensin—Encyclopedia of Stress
  • Components of the Renin–Angiotensin System
  • Alternative Enzymes
  • Endocrine Renin–Angiotensin System
  • Local Renin–Angiotensin Systems
  • Renin–Angiotensin System and Stress
• Chapter 24. Stress, Angiotensin, and Cognate Receptors
  • Introduction
  • Components of the Classical RAS
  • Nonclassical Angiotensin Peptides
  • Receptors for Angiotensin Peptides
  • Neuroendocrine Actions of Angiotensin
  • Conclusions and Perspectives
• Chapter 25. Annexin A1
  • Introduction
  • Structure of ANX-A1
  • The ANX-A1 Gene
  • Distribution of ANX-A1
  • Regulation of the Expression and Cellular Disposition of ANX-A1
  • The ANX-A1 Receptor
  • Functions of ANX-A1
  • ANX-A1–Derived Peptides
  • Summary
• Chapter 26. Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor Antagonists
  • Pharmacology of CRF/Urocortin Receptor Systems
  • Nonneuroendocrine Distribution of CRF1 Receptors
  • Selected CRF Receptor Antagonists
  • Therapeutic Potential of CRF1 Antagonists
  • Glossary
• Chapter 27. Antidepressant Actions on Glucocorticoid Receptors
  • Introduction
  • HPA Axis and Glucocorticoid Receptors in Depression
  • Antidepressants Effects on Glucocorticoid Receptors
  • Conclusions
• Chapter 28. Lipids and Lipoproteins
  • Introduction
  • Structure, Function, and Stability of Lipids and Lipoproteins
  • Environmental and Behavioral Influences on Lipid Concentrations and Lipid Variability
  • Chronic Psychological Stress
  • Acute and Episodic Psychological Stress
  • Mechanisms of Lipid Variability During Stress
  • Interventions to Reduce Stress-Related Increases in Lipid Concentrations
  • Clinical Implications of Variations in Lipid Concentrations
  • Future
• Chapter 29. Corticosteroid Receptors
  • Introduction
  • Overall Structure
  • Receptor Variants
  • Finding Nuclear Targets
  • Transcriptional Regulation
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 30. Glucocorticoid Receptor: Genetics and Epigenetics in Veterans With PTSD
  • PTSD as a Genetic Disorder
  • PTSD as an Epigenetic Disorder
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 31. Stress Effects on Learning and Memory in Humans
  • Introduction
  • Definition of Stress
  • The Two Stress Systems: HPA and SNS
  • Stress and Cognition: Acute Effects
  • Stress and Cognition: Chronic Effects
  • Intervention Strategies
  • Outlook
• Chapter 32. Sex Differences in Chronic Stress: Role of Estradiol in Cognitive Resilience
  • Introduction
  • Learning and Memory is Impaired in Males Following Chronic Stress
  • Learning and Memory is Enhanced in Females Following Chronic Stress
  • Role of Estrogens in Cognitive Resilience to Stress
  • Chronic Stress Increases Anxiety in Both Sexes
  • Chronic Stress Increases Depression in Male Rats
  • Sex Differences in Stress Effects on Neuronal Function
  • Conclusions and Possible Contributions of Sex Differences in the Stress Response and Estradiol to Mental Health
• Chapter 33. Rapid and Slow Effects of Corticosteroid Hormones on Hippocampal Activity
  • Corticosteroids and the Brain
  • Rapid Effects on Neuronal Activity
  • Slow Effects on Neuronal Activity
  • Concluding Remarks
• Chapter 34. 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases
  • Definition: 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase
  • Two Isozymes and a Solution to the Mineralocorticoid Receptor Paradox
  • 11β-HSD2 in the Adult CNS
  • 11β-HSD2 in the Developing CNS
  • 11β-HSD2 and Fetal Programming
  • Fetal Programming of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Behavior
  • 11β-HSD1 in the Brain
  • 11β-HSD1 and the HPA Axis
  • 11β-HSD1 and Cognitive Aging
  • Conclusions
  • Glossary
• Chapter 35. Stress, Insulin Resistance, and Type 2 Diabetes
  • Introduction
  • The Stress Response
  • Chronic Stress, Depression and Type 2 Diabetes
  • Obesity-Related Inflammation as a Chronic Stress State
  • Conclusion
• Chapter 36. Steroid Hydroxylases
  • Introduction
  • Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme: CYP11A1
  • 17-Hydroxylase: CYP17A1
  • 21-Hydroxylase: CYP21A2
  • 11β-Hydroxylases: CYP11B1 and CYP11B2
  • Aromatase: CYP19A1
  • Steroid Catabolism by Cytochrome P450s
• Chapter 37. Manipulating the Brain Corticosteroid Receptor Balance: Focus on Ligands and Modulators
  • Introduction
  • Glucocorticoid Receptor Ligands and Modulators
  • Mineralocorticoid Receptor Ligands and Modulators
  • Human Studies with MR:GR Ligands and Modulators
  • Perspectives
• Chapter 38. Stress and the Central Circadian Clock
  • Introduction
  • The Central Molecular Clock
  • Stress
  • Sites of Interaction Between the Circadian Clock System and the Stress System
  • Summary and Future Directions
• Chapter 39. Nongenomic Effects of Glucocorticoids: Translation From Physiology to Clinic
  • Introduction
  • The Classical Genomic Mechanism of GC Actions and the Adverse Effects of GCs
  • The Nongenomic Effects of GC Actions Related to Clinical Usages
  • The Nongenomic Mechanism of GC Actions and Development of New Drugs
  • Conclusion

Part III. Diurnal, Seasonal, and Ultradian Systems

• Chapter 40. Circadian Rhythm Effects on Cardiovascular and Other Stress-Related Events
  • Chronobiology and Circadian Rhythms
  • Stress and Circadian Rhythms
  • Stress and Individual Chronotype
  • Stress and Circadian Variation of Cardiovascular Events
  • Circadian Variation of Triggering Factors
  • A Novel Stress-Related Model of Cardiac Disease With Possible Circadian Variation: Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy
• Chapter 41. Seasonal Variation in Stress Responses
  • Introduction
  • Seasonal Energetic Adaptations
  • Seasonal Adjustments in Glucocorticoid Secretion
  • Why Are Stress Responses Seasonally Variable?
  • Glossary
• Chapter 42. Seasonal Rhythms
  • Evidence for Seasonal Glucocorticoid Rhythms
  • Evidence for Seasonal Rhythms Downstream of Glucocorticoid Release
  • Mechanisms Regulating Annual Rhythms of Glucocorticoids
  • Why Do Seasonal Glucocorticoid Rhythms Exist?
  • Avian Migration: Testing Seasonal Glucocorticoid Rhythm Hypotheses
  • Adaptive Significance
  • Importance for Biomedical Research
• Chapter 43. Ultradian Rhythms
• Introduction
• Ultradian Rhythm of the HPA Axis
• The Origin and Regulation of Glucocorticoid Pulsatility
• Importance of Pulsatility for Gene Expression and Behavior
• Clinical Relevance of Pulsatility