Steels

Steels: Structure, Properties and Design is an essential text and reference, providing indispensable foundational content for researchers, metallurgists, and engineers in industry and academia. The book provides inspiring content for undergraduates, yet has a depth that makes it useful to researchers. Steels represent the most used metallic materials, possessing a wide range of structures and properties. By examining the properties of steels in conjunction with structure, the book provides a valuable description of the development and behavior of these materials- the very foundation of their widespread use. The new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated with 2 new chapters, expanded content throughout,and yet it retains its clear writing style, extensive bibliographies, and real-life examples. One of the new chapters deals with the additive manufacture of steels with a focus on structure and properties. The other has visionary applications of steel that lead to a dramatic reduction of the carbon dioxide burden, within a short period of time, and without compromising the quality of life that depends on steels.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Biography
Preface
1: Iron and its interstitial solutions
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Allotropes of pure iron
1.2.1. Thin films and isolated particles
1.2.2. Amorphous iron
1.3. Austenite to ferrite transformation
1.3.1. Mechanisms of transformation
1.4. Carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen in solution
1.4.1. Solubility in α- and γ-iron
1.4.2. Diffusion of solutes in iron
1.4.3. Practical consequences of diffusion
1.5. Summary
2: Strengthening of iron and its alloys
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Work hardening
2.3. Interstitial solid-solution hardening or softening
2.3.1. The yield point
2.3.2. Role of interstitial elements in yield phenomena
2.3.3. Strengthening at large interstitial concentrations
2.3.4. Interstitial-solution softening
2.4. Substitutional-solution hardening and softening
2.5. Grain size
2.5.1. Hall–Petch effect
2.5.2. Nanostructured steels
2.6. Dispersion strengthening
2.7. Order strengthening
2.7.1. Aluminides
2.8. Overall strength
2.9. Some practical aspects
2.10. Limits to strength
2.10.1. Theoretical strength
2.11. Hundreds of times stronger than steel
2.12. Ten billion times stronger than steel
2.13. Summary
3: Iron-carbon equilibrium and plain carbon steels
3.1. Iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram
3.2. Austenite-ferrite transformation
3.3. Austenite-cementite transformation
3.4. Kinetics of the γ→α transformation
3.4.1. Growth kinetics of ferrite
3.5. Widmanstätten ferrite
3.5.1. Morphology
3.5.2. Shape change
3.5.3. Growth kinetics of Widmanstätten ferrite
3.5.4. Summary
3.6. Austenite-pearlite reaction
3.6.1. The morphology of pearlite
3.6.2. The crystallography of pearlite
3.6.3. Kinetics of pearlite growth
3.6.4. Divorced pearlite
3.6.5. Overall kinetics of pearlite formation
3.6.6. The strength of pearlite
3.7. Ferrite-pearlite steels
3.8. Summary
4: Solutes that are substitutes for iron
4.1. General principles
4.2. Alloying elements: γ and α phase fields
4.3. Distribution of alloying elements in steels
4.4. Alloying & kinetics of γ/α transformation
4.4.1. Effect of alloying elements on the ferrite reaction
4.4.2. Effect of alloying elements on the pearlite reaction
4.4.3. Alloy pearlite
4.5. Structural changes due to alloying additions
4.5.1. Ferrite/alloy carbide aggregates
4.5.2. Alloy carbide fibres and laths
4.5.3. Interphase precipitation
4.5.4. Precipitation in supersaturated ferrite
4.6. Transformation diagrams for alloy steels
4.7. Light steels
4.8. Summary
5: Formation of martensite
5.1. Introduction
5.2. General characteristics
5.2.1. Habit plane
5.2.2. Orientation relationships
5.2.3. Structure of the interface
5.2.4. The shape deformation
5.3. Crystal structure of martensite
5.4. Crystallography of martensitic transformations
5.5. Morphology of ferrous martensites
5.6. Kinetics of martensitic transformation
5.6.1. Nucleation of martensite
5.6.2. Growth of martensite
5.6.3. Overall athermal-transformation kinetics
5.6.4. Effect of alloying elements
5.6.5. Stress-induced transformation
5.6.6. Effect of austenite grain size
5.6.7. Effect of plastic strain on martensitic transformation
5.6.8. Thermal stabilisation
5.7. Strength of martensite
5.8. Shape memory effect
5.9. Summary
6: Bainite
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Upper bainite (≈400–550∘C)
6.3. Lower bainite (≈250–400∘C)
6.4. The shape deformation
6.5. Carbon in bainite
6.6. Kinetics
6.7. Transition from upper to lower bainite
6.8. Granular bainite
6.9. Tempering of bainite
6.10. Role of alloying elements
Carbon
Other alloying elements
6.11. Use of bainitic steels
6.12. Summary
7: Acicular ferrite
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Microstructure
7.3. Mechanism of transformation
7.4. Inclusions as heterogeneous nucleation sites
7.5. Nucleation of acicular ferrite
7.5.1. Lattice matching theory
7.5.2. Other possibilities
7.6. Summary
8: Heat treatment of steels: hardenability
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Use of TTT and continuous cooling diagrams
8.3. Hardenability testing
8.3.1. The Grossman test
8.3.2. The Jominy end quench test
8.4. Effect of grain size and chemical composition on hardenability
8.5. Quenching stresses and quench cracks
8.6. High-speed, large-scale heat treatment
8.7. Large-scale batch heat-treatment
8.8. Cryogenic treatment
8.9. Summary
9: Tempering of martensite
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Tempering: cementite and transition carbides
9.3. Stages of tempering
9.3.1. Tempering: stage 1
9.3.2. Tempering: stage 2
9.3.3. Tempering: stage 3
9.3.4. Tempering: stage 4
9.4. Role of carbon content
9.5. Mechanical properties of tempered martensite
9.6. Tough, untempered, high-carbon martensite
9.7. Steels with strong carbide-forming elements
9.7.1. Effect of alloying elements on the formation of iron carbides
9.7.2. The formation of alloy carbides: secondary hardening
9.7.3. Nucleation and growth of alloy carbides
9.7.4. Tempering of steels containing vanadium
9.7.5. Tempering of steels containing chromium
9.7.6. Tempering of steels containing molybdenum and tungsten
9.7.7. Complex alloy steels
9.7.8. Mechanical properties of tempered alloy steels
9.7.9. Mechanical properties: hydrogen trapping
9.8. Maraging steels
9.8.1. TRIP-assisted maraging steels
9.9. Summary
10: Thermomechanical treatment
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Controlled rolling of low-alloy steels
10.2.1. General
10.2.2. Grain size control during controlled rolling
10.2.3. Niobium atom clusters
10.2.4. Minimum achievable grain size
10.2.5. Dispersion strengthening during controlled rolling
10.2.6. Strength of microalloyed steels: an overall view
10.3. Dual-phase steels
10.4. TRIP-assisted steels
10.4.1. Low- or zero-silicon TRIP-assisted steels
10.4.2. Galvanising of TRIP-assisted steels
10.5. TWIP steels
10.6. Thermomechanically treated industrial steels
10.7. Ausforming
10.8. Summary
11: Embrittlement and fracture
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Cleavage fracture in iron and steel
11.3. Factors influencing the onset of cleavage fracture
11.4. Criteria for the ductile-brittle transition
11.5. Practical aspects of brittle fracture
11.6. Hydrogen embrittlement
11.6.1. Prevention of hydrogen embrittlement
11.7. Attack by high-pressure hydrogen
11.8. Intergranular embrittlement
11.8.1. Temper embrittlement
11.9. Irradiation embrittlement
11.10. Ductile or fibrous fracture
11.10.1. General
11.10.2. Role of inclusions in ductility
11.10.3. Role of carbides in ductility
11.10.4. Overheating, burning
11.10.5. Liquid metal embrittlement
11.11. Summary
12: Stainless steel
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Not always corrosion resistant
12.3. The iron–chromium–nickel system
12.3.1. Nitrogen
12.4. Schaeffler diagram
12.5. Chromium-rich carbide in Cr-Ni austenitic steels
12.6. Precipitation of niobium and titanium carbides
12.7. Nitrides in austenitic steels
12.8. Intermetallic precipitation in austenite
12.9. Austenitic steels in practical applications
12.10. Oxidation resistant stainless steel
12.11. Duplex and ferritic stainless steels
12.12. Mechanically alloyed stainless steels
12.13. Transformation of metastable austenite
12.14. Summary
13: Weld microstructures
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Fusion zone
13.2.1. Weld solidification
13.2.2. As-deposited microstructure
13.2.3. Allotriomorphic ferrite
13.2.4. Widmanstätten ferrite and acicular ferrite
13.2.5. Sensitivity to carbon
13.3. Heat-affected zone
13.3.1. Heat flow
13.3.2. Microstructural zones
13.3.3. Coarse-grained austenite
13.3.4. Fine-grained austenite zone
13.3.5. Partially austenitic regions and local brittle zones
13.4. Friction stir welding of steels
13.5. Summary
14: Additive manufacture
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Macrostructure
14.3. Powders
14.4. Thermomechanical processing of additively manufactured steel
14.5. Hybrid processing
14.6. Microstructure
14.7. Composites
14.8. Tuned damper
14.9. Summary
15: Nanostructured steels
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Why yearn for exceedingly fine grains?
15.3. Production of nanostructured steel
15.3.1. Shape preserving deformations
15.3.2. Shape altering deformations
15.3.3. Nanostructure without deformation
15.4. Detrimental nanostructures in steels
15.5. Summary
16: Mathematical modelling
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Example 1: alloy design
16.2.1. Calculation of the T0 curve
16.2.2. The improvement in toughness
16.2.3. Precision and limits
16.3. Example 2: properties of mixed microstructures
16.3.1. Calculation of the strength of individual phases
16.3.2. Iron and substitutional solutes
16.3.3. Carbon
16.3.4. Dislocations
16.3.5. Lath size
16.3.6. Martensite composition and transformation temperature
16.3.7. Strength of mixed microstructures
16.4. Methods
16.4.1. Electron theory
16.4.2. Phase diagram calculations and thermodynamics
16.5. Kinetics
16.5.1. Finite difference method
16.6. Finite element method
16.7. Neural networks
16.8. Summary
17: Visionary use of steels (CO2↓)
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Buildings
17.2.1. Improved steel
17.2.2. Building with microalloyed steel
17.3. Coral reef regeneration
17.4. Starship
17.5. Robust ships
17.6. Summary
Acronyms
Nomenclature
Index

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Steels

Structure, Properties, and Design

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H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia

R.W.K. Honeycombe