Snow Leopards

2nd Edition - October 12, 2023
Editors: Tom McCarthy, David Mallon, Karin R. Schwartz
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 8 5 7 7 5 - 8
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 8 4 5 8 - 4

Snow Leopards, Second Edition provides a foundational, comprehensive overview of the biology, ecology and conservation of this iconic species. This updated edition incorpora… Read more

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Snow Leopards, Second Edition provides a foundational, comprehensive overview of the biology, ecology and conservation of this iconic species. This updated edition incorporates all the recent information from range-wide surveys and conservation projects, the results of technical and advances particularly in genetics, camera trapping and satellite tracking, and evaluates emerging threats. New chapters synthesize the novel scientific methods and statistical analyses used to develop density and population estimates and how they inform conservation and management estimates. Sections cover historical information, the main biogeographic patterns, evolutionary trends, conservational efforts, and cultural significance.

Status and distribution are fully updated for all 12 countries where snow leopards occur. Other sections describe established and emerging threats, including human-wildlife conflict, illegal trade, infrastructure development, and climate change along with conservation solutions used to address these threats. The book concludes with a final section on global snow leopard initiatives and future potentials.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
Editor Biographies
Foreword
Introduction
The ecological and scientific context
Approaches to snow leopard conservation practice
Into the future
References
Preface
Section I: Defining the snow leopard
Chapter 1: What is a snow leopard? Taxonomy, morphology, and phylogeny
Abstract
Introduction
Taxonomic history and geographical variation
Morphological adaptations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology
Abstract
Introduction
Population ecology
Physical characteristics and capabilities
Behavior and life history
Ecological interactions and effects
Snow leopard ecology in a human-dominated world
References
Chapter 3: What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview
Abstract
Snow leopard biogeography
Snow leopard population status
The snow leopard's legal status
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Snow leopard diet and prey
Abstract
Introduction
Dietary composition
Dietary requirements and offtake rates
Status of prey
Conclusions
References
Section II: Conservation concerns
Chapter 5: Livestock predation by snow leopards: Conflicts and the search for solutions
Abstract
Acknowledgment
Introduction
Revisiting “human-snow leopard conflicts”
Understanding conflicts over livestock predation
Managing conflicts over livestock predation
References
Chapter 6: Living on the edge: Depletion of wild prey and survival of the snow leopard
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Study areas
Implications of wild prey abundance for conservation management of snow leopards
References
Chapter 7: Illegal killing and trade
Abstract
Introduction
Legal protection
Illegal trade
Monitoring illegal trade
Extent of illegal killing
Trade routes
Country summaries
Recommendations
References
Chapter 8: Climate change impacts on snow leopard range
Abstract
Introduction
Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range
Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Diseases of wild snow leopards and their wild ungulate prey
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Diseases in wild snow leopards
Diseases in snow leopard natural ungulate prey species
Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Emerging threats to snow leopards from energy and mineral development
Abstract
Introduction
Impacts of mining and energy development
Development threats across snow leopard range
Mitigation policy and practice
Landscape-level mitigation in action: Mongolian Gobi case study
Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Linear infrastructure and snow leopard conservation
Abstract
References
Chapter 12: Harvest of caterpillar fungus and wood by local people
Abstract
Caterpillar fungus
Wood
References
Chapter 13: Snow leopard, common leopard, and wolf: Are they good neighbors?
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
References
Chapter 14: Promoting coexistence through improved understanding of human perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward snow leopards
Abstract
Introduction
Understanding attitudes and human-snow leopard relationships
Human-snow leopard relationships evolve as does culture
Conclusions
References
Section III: Conservation solutions in situ
Chapter 15: The role of mountain communities in snow leopard conservation
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
A brief overview of community involvement in snow leopard conservation
Rationale for adopting community-based biodiversity protection and management models in snow leopard range countries
Improving snow leopard conservation
Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Building community governance structures and institutions for snow leopard conservation
Abstract
The case for governance and snow leopard conservation
Social justice and governance
Conservation and good governance: Land tenure and representation
Building governance institutions
Early support for new governance institutions
Completing the circle: Building linkages and co-management processes with government
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Incentive and reward programs in snow leopard conservation
Subchapter 17.1: Himalayan Homestays: Fostering human-snow leopard coexistence
Subchapter 17.2: Snow Leopard Enterprises, Mongolia
Subchapter 17.3: A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls of livestock insurance and incentives schemes
References
Chapter 18: Livestock husbandry and snow leopard conservation
Subchapter 18.1: Corral improvements
Subchapter 18.2: The role of village reserves in revitalizing the natural prey base of the snow leopard
Subchapter 18.3: The Ecosystem Health Program: A tool to promote the coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards
References
Chapter 19: Religion and cultural impacts on snow leopards conservation
Subchapter 19.1: Introduction
Subchapter 19.2: Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation
Subchapter 19.3: Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures
Subchapter 19.4: Snow leopards in art and legend of the Pamir
Subchapter 19.5: The order “barys” and title “snow leopard”: The snow leopard in symbolism, heraldry and numismatics
References
Chapter 20: Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards
Subchapter 20.1: The trophy hunting program: Enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation
Subchapter 20.2: Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) trophy hunting in Mongolia
Subchapter 20.3: Hunting of prey species—A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls: Experiences from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
References
Chapter 21: Environmental education for snow leopard conservation
Abstract
Introduction
What is EE?
Challenges in teaching snow-leopard-focused EE
Different approaches to snow leopard EE
Cross-border EE exchanges
Zoos and snow leopard EE
Monitoring and evaluation
From awareness to action
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Law enforcement in snow leopard conservation
Abstract
Snow leopards—Illegal killing and trade
Case study
Recommendations
References
Chapter 23: Transboundary initiatives and snow leopard conservation
Abstract
Transboundary conservation and snow leopards
Rationale for transboundary collaboration
The legal framework for transboundary conservation
Challenges in implementing transboundary conservation
Transboundary conservation initiatives and current status of transboundary protected areas
Conclusions
References
Appendix
Chapter 24: Corporate business and the conservation of the snow leopard: Worlds that need not collide
Abstract
Introduction
Business case for conservation
Environmental management plans
Biodiversity offsetting
Biodiversity action plans
Opportunities
Conclusions
References
Section IV: Conservation solutions ex situ
Chapter 25: Management of captive snow leopards in the EAZA region
Abstract
Introduction
Breakthroughs in the 1980s
Goal of the EEP: To maintain a genetically intact population with high gene diversity
Suggestions for improvement
Toward global management
Why keep snow leopards in captivity?
References
Further reading
Chapter 26: Role of zoos in snow leopard conservation: The Species Survival Plan® in North America
Abstract
Introduction
Management of snow leopards in North American zoos
Collaboration and challenges
References
Chapter 27: Captive snow leopards as ambassadors of wild kin
Subchapter 27.1: Kolmården Wildlife Park: Supporting snow leopards in the wild, sharing the message at home
Subchapter 27.2: From a zoo came a true snow leopard champion
Subchapter 27.3: Ambassadors from the roof of the world
References
Chapter 28: Rescue, rehabilitation, translocation, reintroduction, and captive rearing: Lessons from the other big cats
Abstract
Introduction
Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy
Case study 2. The Iberian lynx: Restoring a population on the verge of extinction
Case study 3. Genetic restoration as a management tool for endangered felids: Lessons learned from the Florida panther
Case study 4: Rescue, rehabilitation, and reintroduction of Amur tigers into historic range in the Russian Far East
Lessons learned
References
Section V: Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid
Chapter 29: Snow leopard research—A historical perspective
Abstract
In the beginning
Steady march of science
References
Chapter 30: From VHF to satellite GPS collars—Advancements in snow leopard telemetry
Abstract
Introduction
VHF telemetry—The first studies
Argos PPT telemetry
GPS telemetry
Conclusion
References
Chapter 31: Conservation genetics of snow leopards
Abstract
Introduction
Non-NGS studies
Advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods specifically for snow leopards
Molecular dietary analysis
Comparison of genetics with traditional methods (e.g., camera traps)
Major gaps and priorities for filling
Necessary steps to overcome knowledge gaps
Glossary
References
Chapter 32: Camera trapping—Advancing the technology
Abstract
Camera-trapping applications and considerations
Overview of camera trap technology
Camera-trap data management
Future directions in technology
References
Chapter 33: Drones for snow leopard conservation
Abstract
Introduction
Mongolia case study
Conclusions
Addendum
References
Chapter 34: PAWS: Population Assessment of the World's Snow leopards
Abstract
Introduction
The approach
PAWS so far
PAWS next steps
Conclusion
References
Section VI: Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates
Chapter 35: Snow leopard status and conservation in Afghanistan
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction: Historical records and past conservation efforts
Present status of snow leopards in Afghanistan
Current threats to snow leopard populations
Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan
Conclusion
References
Chapter 36: The snow leopard in Kyrgyzstan
Abstract
Snow leopard habitat and distribution
Status of snow leopard prey
Legal protection
Threats to snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan
National action plan, the NSLEP, and management plans for protected areas
Transboundary conservation initiatives
Research
NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards
Future needs
References
Chapter 37: Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan
Abstract
Introduction
Distribution
Conservation efforts
Population status
Threats
References
Chapter 38: The snow leopard in Tajikistan
Abstract
Snow leopard habitat in Tajikistan
Snow leopard population status
State of key prey species
Protected areas where snow leopards occur
Community-based and private conservancies
Threats to snow leopards in Tajikistan
Legal protection
The snow leopard action plan
NSLEP 2014–20
Future needs and priorities
References
Chapter 39: The snow leopard in Uzbekistan
Abstract
Snow leopard status
History of the snow leopard national strategy and action plan
Uzbekistan's role in GSLEP process: Nomination of 24th snow leopard landscape “The Western Tien Shan”
References
Chapter 40: Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan
Abstract
Introduction
Snow leopard population status and habitat distribution in Bhutan
Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan
Conclusion
References
Chapter 41: Securing India's snow leopards: Status, threats, and conservation
Abstract
Snow leopard range in India
State of knowledge
Challenges in snow leopard conservation
Conservation efforts in India
References
Chapter 42: Conservation of snow leopard in Nepal
Abstract
Distribution status, abundance, and ecology
References
Chapter 43: The current state of snow leopard conservation in Pakistan
Abstract
Introduction
Threats and challenges
Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms
Lessons learned and way forward
References
Chapter 44: Current status and conservation of snow leopards in Mongolia
Abstract
Introduction
Status and threats
The history of snow leopard conservation in Mongolia
Snow leopards in law and policy
Transboundary initiatives
Research, monitoring, and capacity building
Wildlife law enforcement
Legal framework to empower communities to co-management wildlife and habitat
Future needs to mitigate snow leopard threats
References
Chapter 45: Snow leopard conservation in Russia
Abstract
Introduction
Current status of the snow leopard in Russia
Genetic structure of snow leopard populations in Russia and adjacent countries
Snow leopard dietary analysis
Snow leopard conservation in Russia
Conclusion
References
Chapter 46: Snow leopard status and conservation in China
Abstract
Overview on snow leopard status in China
Snow leopard conservation in China
Research and monitoring
Challenges to snow leopard conservation in China
The way forward
References
Section VII: The future of snow leopards
Chapter 47: Sharing the conservation message
Abstract
Introduction
Communicating conservation messages with the public
Challenges in communicating with the public
Communicating conservation messages within the scientific and conservation community
Communicating the conservation message with the government
Conclusions
References
Chapter 48: Global strategies for snow leopard conservation: A spot-joining synthesis
Abstract
Introduction
Four snow leopard strategies
Why conserve snow leopards?
Where to conserve snow leopards?
How to conserve snow leopards?
A strategic synthesis
References
Chapter 49: The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program
Abstract
Genesis: How the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program was formed
Framework: Key principles, structure, and approaches of the GSLEP
Preparation stage and milestones of the GSLEP and the Global Forum on snow leopard conservation
The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program
GSLEP launch, implementation, and information sharing
Impacts
References
Chapter 50: Future prospects for snow leopard survival
Abstract
References
Index

Tom McCarthy

Dr. Tom McCarthy, Panthera’s Director of Snow Leopard Programs, began his conservation career studying brown bears, black bears, mountain goats and caribou in Alaska in the early 1980s. A strong interest in international conservation led him to Mongolia in 1992, where, under the guidance of Dr. George Schaller (known as “one of the founding fathers of wildlife conservation”), he took over the management of a long-term snow leopard research project. He was the first biologist to use satellite radio-collars on snow leopards. McCarthy became the Science and Conservation Director of the Snow Leopard Trust in 2000 and has since led their extensive science and community-based conservation programs across much of snow leopard range in Asia. From 2002-2009, Dr. McCarthy served as Executive Director of the Snow Leopard Network, a global consortium of more than 200 professionals involved in snow leopard research and conservation. Among other research initiatives, Dr. McCarthy is leading both a range-wide assessment of snow leopard genetics that seeks to identify movement corridors which are critical to maintaining the health and genetic diversity of the species, and a revision of methods by which snow leopard populations can be monitored over time, including such novel non-invasive approaches as fecal genetics, camera trapping and statistical modeling based on sign surveys.

Affiliations and expertise

Executive Director, Snow Leopard Program, PANTHERA, New York, NY, USA

David Mallon

Dr. David Mallon is not only a recognized expert on snow leopards, he is extremely knowledgeable on the conservation status of Central Asia as a whole. He conducted some of the early assessments of the status of snow leopards in Mongolia and has done surveys in many of the Himalayan range states. He has more than 25 years of field work experience in the Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau, Mongolia, Central Asia and Arabia, mainly focused on large mammals, and involving species surveys, biodiversity assessment, habitat assessment, camera trapping, training, capacity building, and training local partners in census and monitoring techniques. He is a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Zoological Society of London, as well as a member of the International Editorial Board for Oryx, the International Journal of Conservation. He has been a Steering Committee member of the Snow Leopard Network since its inception in 2003 and is currently the elected Chairman of that 400 member organization, which represents nearly every biologist and conservationist now active in the snow leopard world. He is highly respected among his peers as an expert on this cat.

Affiliations and expertise

Division of Biology and Conservation Ecology, School of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Karin R. Schwartz

Dr. Karin R. Schwartz is a long-standing conservation professional with extensive experience in data management as applied to conservation programs within zoological institutions as well as for regional cooperative animal management programs and in situ conservation efforts. Her dissertation research focused on linking in situ and ex situ data management processes for endangered species recovery programs through the Species360 Zoological Information Management System. She initiated and led the development of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) records-training programs for use of Species360 software and was Co-Administrator of the Institutional Records-Keeping Course for 19 years. She has international training experience through the presentation of records training sessions for the regional zoo associations in Argentina, India, and South Korea, and for individual zoos in Ecuador, Hawaii, New York, and South Korea. Dr. Schwartz has extensive experience in international conservation efforts through involvement in IUCN/Species Survival Commission’s Conservation Planning, Conservation Translocation, Tapir, Otter, and Wildlife Health Specialist Groups. She serves as the Ex Situ/In Situ Liaison on the Management Committee of the IUCN Otter Specialist Group. She was a chapter author and editor for two books in the Biodiversity of the World series: Cheetahs: Biology and Conservation and Tree Kangaroos: Science and Conservation. These experiences led to the role of Series Editor for the Biodiversity of the World book series to oversee the development of new books on relevant endangered species.

Affiliations and expertise

Records Manager, Department of Animal Care, Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, RI, United States

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Snow Leopards

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Tom McCarthy

David Mallon

Karin R. Schwartz