Sensors, Circuits, and Systems for Scientific Instruments

Sensors, Circuits, and Systems for Scientific Instruments: Fundamentals and Front-Ends presents a unified treatment of modern measurement systems by integrating relevant knowledge in sensors, circuits, signal processing, and machine learning. It also presents detailed case studies of several real-life measurement systems to illustrate how theoretical analysis and high-level designs are translated into working scientific instruments.

The book is meant for upper-level undergraduate and beginning graduate students in electrical and computer engineering, applied physics, and biomedical engineering. It is designed to fill a gap in the market between books focused on specific components of measurement systems (semiconductor devices, analog circuits, digital signal processing, etc.) and books that provide a high-level "survey" or "handbook"-type overview of a wide range of sensors and measurement systems.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Review of linear systems
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Transfer functions
1.2.1. Continuous- and discrete-time systems
1.2.2. Stability
1.2.3. Invertibility
1.3. Lumped systems
1.4. Distributed systems
1.4.1. Need for distributed models
1.4.2. Transmission lines
1.4.3. Impedance matching
1.4.4. RC transmission lines
1.4.5. Lumped transmission lines
1.5. Multi-dimensional systems
1.6. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 2: Principles of measurement-system design
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Fundamental properties of measurements
2.2.1. Structure of measurement systems
2.2.2. Properties of transducers
2.2.3. Energy measurements
2.3. Theory of classical measurements
2.3.1. Bayesian inference
2.3.2. Information theory
2.4. Feedback systems
2.4.1. Feedback block diagrams and Black's formula
2.4.2. Effects of feedback on noise and disturbances
2.4.3. Effects of feedback on impedance
2.4.4. Effects of feedback on bandwidth
2.4.5. Implementing inverse functions
2.4.6. Stabilizing unstable systems
2.4.7. Limitations of feedback
2.4.8. State-space models
2.5. Design of feedback controllers
2.5.1. Root-locus analysis
2.5.2. Reduced gain compensation
2.5.3. Dominant pole compensation
2.5.4. Lag compensation
2.5.5. Lead compensation
2.5.6. Lead–lag and PID control
2.5.7. Minor loop compensation
2.5.8. State-space control
2.6. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 3: Review of solid-state device physics
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Fundamentals of carrier transport
3.3. The elastic resistor
3.4. Boltzmann transport equation (BTE)
3.5. Conductance
3.6. Band structures
3.7. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 4: Models of electronic devices
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Resistors
4.2.1. General properties
4.2.2. Drude model
4.2.3. Thermal effects
4.2.4. Nanoscale resistors
4.3. Capacitors
4.3.1. General properties
4.3.2. Dielectric relaxation
4.3.3. Dielectric absorption
4.4. Inductors
4.4.1. Solenoids
4.4.2. Planar spirals
4.4.3. Skin effect
4.4.4. Proximity effect
4.4.5. Core losses
4.4.6. Winding capacitance and SRF
4.4.7. Kinetic inductance
4.5. Transformers
4.5.1. Mutual inductance
4.5.2. Basic properties
4.5.3. Non-ideal behavior
4.6. Diodes
4.6.1. P-N junction diodes
4.6.2. Photodiodes
4.6.3. PIN diodes
4.6.4. Step-recovery diodes
4.6.5. Schottky diodes
4.7. Bipolar junction transistors
4.7.1. Basic operation
4.7.2. Ebers–Moll model
4.7.3. Non-ideal effects
4.7.4. Small-signal equivalent circuit
4.7.5. Heterojunction bipolar transistors
4.8. Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs)
4.8.1. Basic operation
4.8.2. Subthreshold MOSFETs
4.8.3. Above-threshold MOSFETs
4.8.4. Non-ideal effects
4.8.5. Small-signal equivalent circuit
4.9. Junction field-effect transistors (JFETs)
4.10. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 5: Models of sensors and actuators
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Magnetic devices
5.2.1. Magnetic circuits
5.2.2. Electromagnets
5.2.3. Permanent magnets
5.2.4. Halbach arrays
5.3. Mechanical systems
5.3.1. Equivalent-circuit models
5.3.2. Piezoelectric devices
5.3.3. Pyroelectricity and ferroelectricity
5.3.4. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
5.4. Thermal sensors
5.4.1. Definition of temperature
5.4.2. Resistance thermometers
5.4.3. Thermocouples
5.5. Gas sensors
5.5.1. Electrochemical cells
5.5.2. Chemiresistors
5.5.3. Mechanical detectors
5.5.4. Calorimeters
5.6. Acoustic sensors
5.6.1. Sound measurements
5.6.2. Dynamic microphones
5.6.3. Piezoelectric microphones
5.6.4. Condenser microphones
5.7. Modeling and simulation methods
5.7.1. Sensors and actuators
5.7.2. Circuits
5.8. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 6: Noise in electronic devices
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Heat, temperature, and thermodynamics
6.3. Noise processes
6.3.1. Analysis of noise processes
6.3.2. Shot noise
6.3.3. Relationship to carrier transport
6.4. The resistor
6.5. The junction diode
6.6. Noise in BJTs
6.7. The subthreshold MOSFET
6.8. The above-threshold MOSFET
6.8.1. Noise from junction diodes
6.9. Noise calculations based on transit time
6.9.1. Drain-current noise in short-channel devices
6.9.2. Noise in moderate inversion
6.9.3. Noise in RF MOSFETs
6.10. Noise in JFETs
6.11. The resistor at high frequencies
6.11.1. Intuitive analysis
6.11.2. Modified analysis
6.12. The fluctuation–dissipation theorem
6.12.1. Main properties
6.12.2. Physically observable fluctuations
6.13. Noise in antennas
6.14. Flicker noise
6.14.1. MOSFET flicker noise
6.14.2. Low-frequency divergence
6.14.3. Experimental measurements
6.14.4. More experimental measurements
6.15. Noise in other transistors
6.16. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 7: Noise in circuits
7.1. Introduction
7.2. General considerations
7.3. Example 1: a passive RC low-pass filter
7.4. Example 2: a subthreshold photoreceptor
7.5. The equipartition theorem
7.5.1. A first-order RC circuit
7.5.2. A compressed spring
7.5.3. A moving pendulum
7.5.4. A spring–mass system
7.5.5. Caveats and limitations
7.6. Noise-analysis procedure
7.7. Example 3: a subthreshold OTA
7.8. Example 4: a switched-capacitor resistor
7.9. Example 5: passive mixers
7.10. Example 6: an active mixer
7.11. Example 7: a cascade of low-pass filters
7.12. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 8: Low-noise front-end design
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Receiver characteristics
8.3. Input-impedance matching
8.3.1. Single-element matching
8.3.2. Higher-order matching networks
8.3.3. Impedance matching of antennas
8.4. Input-referred noise models
8.5. Derivation of NF from two-port network parameters
8.5.1. Voltage gain of a two-port network
8.5.2. NF for a single two-port network
8.5.3. NF for cascaded two-port networks
8.6. Active impedance transformers
8.6.1. The Miller effect
8.6.2. Bootstrapping
8.6.3. Active damping circuits
8.6.4. Gyrators
8.7. High-impedance measurements
8.7.1. Choice of circuit architecture
8.7.2. Noise analysis
8.7.3. Switched-integrator electrometers
8.8. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 9: Precision circuit techniques
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Low-noise amplifier (LNA) design
9.2.1. Major LNA topologies
9.2.2. Generalized noise matching
9.2.3. Noise matching for CMOS LNAs
9.3. Fully differential circuits
9.3.1. General properties
9.3.2. Common-mode feedback (CMFB)
9.4. Low-frequency noise-reduction methods
9.4.1. Autozeroing and correlated double sampling (CDS)
9.4.2. Chopper stabilization
9.4.3. Noise shaping
9.4.4. Mismatch shaping
9.5. Cross-spectrum noise measurements
9.6. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 10: Power supplies and thermal management
10.1. Introduction
10.2. DC power supplies
10.2.1. Batteries
10.2.2. Linear voltage regulators
10.2.3. Switching voltage regulators
10.2.4. Power-supply routing and filtering
10.3. Thermal analysis
10.3.1. Thermal-equivalent circuits
10.3.2. Passive cooling
10.3.3. Active cooling
10.3.4. Temperature-control loops
10.4. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 11: High-power front-end design
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Power amplifiers (PAs)
11.2.1. Basic characteristics of power amplifiers
11.2.2. Quasi-linear power amplifiers
11.2.3. Switching power amplifiers
11.3. PA linearization techniques
11.3.1. Power backoff
11.3.2. Corrective pre-distortion or post-distortion
11.3.3. Adaptive pre-distortion
11.3.4. Feedforward linearization
11.3.5. Envelope elimination and restoration (EER)
11.3.6. Polar feedback
11.3.7. Cartesian feedback
11.3.8. Linear amplification with non-linear components (LINC)
11.4. Power combiners
11.5. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 12: Front-end design for extreme environments
12.1. Introduction
12.2. High-temperature environments
12.2.1. Temperature-dependent transconductance
12.2.2. Temperature-dependent gate leakage current
12.2.3. Wide-band-gap (WBG) devices
12.2.4. High-temperature (HT) design techniques
12.2.5. Active thermoelectric (TE) cooling
12.3. Low-temperature environments
12.3.1. Low-temperature behavior of semiconductor devices
12.3.2. Low-temperature behavior of metals
12.4. High-radiation environments
12.4.1. Effects of radiation
12.4.2. Fault-tolerant system design
12.4.3. Hardware redundancy
12.5. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 13: Oscillators and frequency references
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Time–frequency measurements and clocks
13.2.1. Time and frequency standards
13.2.2. Basics of oscillators
13.2.3. Describing function analysis
13.2.4. Describing-function analysis of oscillators
13.3. Types of oscillators
13.3.1. RC oscillators
13.3.2. LC oscillators
13.3.3. Electromechanical oscillators
13.3.4. Frequency stability
13.4. Noise in oscillators
13.4.1. Why is phase noise bad?
13.4.2. LTI theory
13.4.3. LTV theory
13.4.4. Amplitude noise
13.4.5. Phase noise as a diffusive process
13.4.6. Improvements to the LTV theory
13.4.7. Jitter
13.4.8. Time-domain measures of oscillator stability
13.5. Long-term behavior of oscillators
13.5.1. Oscillator ageing
13.5.2. Power-law models of oscillator stability
13.6. Frequency-measurement instruments
13.6.1. Spectrum analyzers
13.6.2. Phase-noise analyzers
13.6.3. Frequency counters
13.7. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 14: Phase-locked loops
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Design of phase-locked loops
14.2.1. Loop compensation
14.2.2. Capture and lock ranges
14.2.3. Phase-detector design
14.2.4. Loop-filter design
14.2.5. VCO and CCO design
14.3. Noise in phase-locked loops
14.3.1. Phase noise
14.3.2. Time-domain jitter
14.3.3. Phase-noise measurements
14.4. Injection locking
14.4.1. Injection pulling and locking effects
14.4.2. Steady-state analysis
14.4.3. Locking dynamics
14.4.4. Extensions to Adler's equation
14.5. Frequency synthesizers
14.5.1. Integer-N synthesizers
14.5.2. Fractional-N synthesizers
14.6. All-digital PLLs
14.7. GPS-disciplined oscillators (GPSDOs)
14.8. Direct digital synthesis (DDS)
14.8.1. Basic operation
14.8.2. Quantization effects
14.8.3. Memory requirements
14.8.4. Reduction of quantization effects
14.9. Delay-locked loops
14.9.1. VCDL design
14.9.2. Linearized loop dynamics
14.9.3. Effects of supply noise
14.9.4. Phase-noise analysis
14.9.5. Practical design issues
14.9.6. DLL-based frequency multipliers
14.9.7. All-digital DLLs
14.10. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Chapter 15: Frequency standards
15.1. Introduction
15.2. General properties of atomic clocks
15.3. Rubidium frequency standards
15.3.1. Theory of operation
15.3.2. Design details
15.4. Caesium frequency standards
15.4.1. Caesium-beam clocks
15.4.2. Caesium-fountain clocks
15.5. Optical frequency standards
15.6. Summary and further reading
Exercises
Index

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Sensors, Circuits, and Systems for Scientific Instruments

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Soumyajit Mandal