Retinal and Choroidal Vascular Diseases of the Eye

Retinal and Choroidal Vascular Diseases of the Eye explores a variety of retinal and choroidal vascular diseases, covering their pathogenesis, clinical features, and management strategies. The book begins with an outline of the basic features of retinal and choroidal vasculature before moving on to imaging techniques. Chapters then delve into specific diseases and abnormalities, as well as vascular diseases that are associated with systemic inflammatory diseases. The book then moves onto considering vascular diseases associated with system conditions before considering vascular tumors. Recent innovations and upcoming treatment options are also explored for the various diseases throughout the book.

This comprehensive reference provides a deep dive into vascular diseases of the eye, and is a must-have reference for ophthalmologists, medical and surgical retina specialists, and researchers in related fields.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
List of contributors
Foreword: Lesson learned in retinal vascular diseases
Foreword: Retina and choroidal vascular diseases of the eye: Exploring pathways of sight and beyond
Preface
Section I. Basics of retinal and choroidal vasculature
Chapter 1. Development and physiology
General anatomy of the retinal and choroidal vessels
The development of the choroid and retinal vasculature
Chapter 2. Animal models
Introduction
Chapter 3. Vascular changes with aging
Introduction
Vessel diameter and arteriovenous ratio
Retinal blood flow velocity
Fractal analysis
Perivascular capillary-free space
Vessel tortuosity
Vessel density
Foveal avascular zone
Choriocapillaris
Choroid
Retinal perfusion
Miscellaneous
Section II. Imaging
Chapter 4. Fundus photography
Introduction
Fundus photography and its invention history
Types of fundus cameras
Types of fundus photography
Smartphone fundus photography
Advantages of fundus photography for the diagnosis of retinal choroidal diseases
The disadvantages of CFP
Normal fundus photography
Abnormal fundus photography
The role of artificial intelligence using CFP
Chapter 5. Fluorescein angiography
Introduction
Basics of fluorescein angiography
Limits of fluorescein angiography
Widefield fluorescein angiography
Clinical applications of fluorescein angiography
Chapter 6. Widefield indocyanine green angiography
Introduction
Widefield indocyanine green angiography
Specific findings on ultra-widefield indocyanine green angiography
Conclusion
Chapter 7. Optical coherence tomography
Introduction
OCT time domain
OCT spectral domain
Enhanced-depth imaging technology
OCT swept-source
OCT “en face”
Chapter 8. Optical coherence tomography angiography
Introduction
Healthy anatomy
Neovascular age-related macular degeneration
Diabetic retinopathy
Retinal vein occlusion
Retina artery occlusion
Myopia
Central serous chorioretinopathy
Uveitis and inflammatory eye desease
Chapter 9. Oximetry
Introduction
Technical background
Retinal oximetry in diabetes
Retinal vascular occlusion
Ocular degenerative disease
Retinal oximetry as a marker of systemic disease
Conclusions
Abbreviations
Chapter 10. Widefield imaging of the peripheral retina
Introduction
Imaging modalities
Retinal vein occlusions
Age-related macular degeneration
Peripheral retinal degenerations
Retinal detachment
Uveitis
Peripheral retinal and choroidal tumors
Retinal dystrophies
Pathologic myopia
Chapter 11. Upcoming invasive and noninvasive imaging modalities
Laser Doppler holography
Adaptive optics
Optoretinography
Flavoprotein fluorescence imaging
Doppler optical coherence tomography
Imaging vitreous cortex hyalocytes (VCHs) using clinical en face OCT
Erythrocyte-mediated angiography
Section III. Retinal vascular diseases
Chapter 12. Central retinal vein occlusion
Pathogenesis
Clinical features
Imaging findings
Clinical trial updates
Management strategies
Clinical cases
Chapter 13. Branch retinal vein occlusion
Introduction
Classification
Epidemiology and risk factors
Pathogenesis
Clinical features
Imaging findings
Management strategies
Clinical trial updates
Chapter 14. Central retinal artery occlusion
Introduction
History
Epidemiology
Vascular anatomy
Etiology
Pathology
Classification of CRAO
Clinical features
Differential diagnosis
Physical investigations
Ocular investigations
Management
Chapter 15. Ocular ischemic syndrome
Introduction
Systemic associations
Epidemiology and pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Ancillary tests
Imaging methods for the evaluation of carotid occlusive disease
Differential diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Case presentations
Chapter 16. Diabetic retinopathy and choroidopathy: Pathophysiology, imaging findings, and treatment updates
Pathophysiology
Clinical features and classification
Multimodal imaging in diabetic retinopathy
Recent clinical trial updates for diabetic retinopathy management
Conclusion
Chapter 17. Paracentral acute middle maculopathy and acute macular neuroretinopathy: Distinct but related entities
Pathogenesis
Paracentral acute middle maculopathy
Acute macular neuroretinopathy
Conclusion
Section IV. Choroidal vascular diseases
Chapter 18. Pachychoroid syndrome
Introduction
Central serous chorioretinopathy
Pachychoroid pigment epitheliopathy
Pachychoroid neovasculopathy
Focal choroidal excavation
Conclusions
Chapter 19. Venous overload choroidopathy
Introduction
Causes of choroidal venous overload
Conclusion
Chapter 20. Peripapillary pachychoroid syndrome
Clinical features
Etiology
Diagnosis and multimodal imaging
Differential diagnosis
Management
Section V. Vascular abnormalities
Chapter 21. Retinal artery aneurysmal abnormalities
Macroaneurysm of retinal arteries
Perifoveal vascular anomalous complex
Retinal capillary macroaneurysm
Chapter 22. Macular telangiectasia
Overview bullets
Introduction
Other research on mechanisms of macular telangiectasia type 2
Chapter 23. Coats disease
Introduction
Demographics and epidemiology
Genetics
Pathogenesis
Clinical features
Imaging findings
Differential diagnosis
Management strategies
Outcomes and prognosis
Conclusion
Chapter 24. Arteriovenous malformations
Preretinal vascular loop
Familial retinal arteriolar tortuosity
Retinal arteriovenous malformations
Chapter 25. Choroidal macrovessel
Definition
Description
Choroidal blood supply
Hypothetical correlation of choroidal macrovessel with posterior ciliary artery
Diagnostic signs
Differential diagnosis
Complications
Treatment options
Literature review
Conclusion
Section VI. Vascular diseases associated with systemic inflammatory diseases
Chapter 26. Systemic lupus erythematosus
Introduction
Systemic diagnosis
Pathophysiology
Antiphospholipid syndrome
Retinal and choroidal manifestations
Imaging
Treatment considerations
Conclusion
Chapter 27. Retina and choroidal vascular changes in Behçet disease
Introduction
Retina vascular changes in adult Behçet patients
Retinal vascular changes in pediatric Behçet patients
Choroidal vascular changes in Behçet patients
Conclusion
Chapter 28. Multiple sclerosis
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Neuropathology
Disease onset and clinical patterns
Ocular manifestations of MS in adults
Diagnosis
Overview of treatment
Conclusions
Chapter 29. Sarcoidosis
Introduction
Epidemiology of sarcoidosis
Etiology and pathogenesis
Clinical features
Diagnosis of sarcoidosis
Treatment of ocular sarcoidosis
Chapter 30. Granulomatosis/polyarteritis nodosa associated disorders
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Polyarteritis nodosa
Conclusions
Chapter 31. Retinal manifestations of Takayasu’s arteritis
Takayasu’s arteritis
Takayasu’s retinopathy
Section VII. Vascular diseases associated with systemic conditions
Chapter 32. Hypertensive retinopathy
Case studies
Introduction
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis of hypertensive eye disease
Clinical features
Differential diagnosis
Imaging findings and future image studies
Recent clinical trial updates
Management strategies
Chapter 33. Pregnancy-induced hypertension
Introduction
Terminology and classification
Overview of choroidal and retinal vasculature
Preeclampsia/eclampsia-associated hypertensive choroidopathy and retinopathy
Management of hypertensive choroidopathy and hypertensive retinopathy
Exacerbation of preexisting diabetic retinopathy during PIH
Retinal vascular occlusion in the setting of PIH
Conclusion
Chapter 34. Sickle cell retinopathy
Pathogenesis
Clinical features
Imaging studies
Management strategies
Screening
Chapter 35. Leukemic retinopathy
Introduction
Pathogenesis
Leukemic retinopathy
Leukemic choroidopathy
Leukemic optic neuropathy
Vitreous infiltration
Secondary retinal manifestations
Opportunistic retinal infections
Chemotherapy-related retinal changes
Imaging findings
Treatment
Chapter 36. Purstcher retinopathy
Introduction
Clinical features
Imaging findings
Additional diagnostic evaluation
Pathogenesis
Histopathology
Management
Prognosis and outcomes
Summary
Chapter 37. Radiation retinopathy
Introduction
Basics and pathogenesis
Risk factors
Clinical features
Imaging findings and future imaging
Classification of radiation retinopathy
Treatment
Conclusion and future directions
Chapter 38. Giant cell arteritis–associated ocular vascular diseases
Introduction
Pathogenesis
Description
Demographics
Classic symptoms of giant cell arteritis
Clinical ophthalmic findings
Arteritic posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (A-PION)
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO)
Other complications of GCA
How is giant cell arteritis diagnosed?
Comparing TAB and CDU
Other modalities for GCA diagnosis
Treatments
Section VIII. Vascular tumors
Chapter 39. Retinal capillary hemangioblastoma and cavernous hemangioma
Retinal capillary hemangioblastoma
Retinal cavernous hemangioma
Conclusions
Chapter 40. Choroidal hemangioma
Introduction
Circumscribed choroidal hemangioma
Diffuse choroidal hemangioma
Conclusion
Chapter 41. Choroidal melanoma
Pathogenesis
Clinical features and symptoms
Diagnosis
Imaging findings
Clinical trials
Managements strategies
Prognosis and follow-up
Chapter 42. Retinal vasoproliferative tumors
Introduction
Pathogenesis
Clinical features
Diagnostic evaluation
Treatment and prognosis
Concluding summary
Section IX. Miscellaneous
Chapter 43. Susac syndrome
Introduction
Historical
Epidemiology
Clinical findings
Neurological
Vestibulocochlear
Ophthalmological
Other systemic findings
Clinical course
Diagnostic criteria
Differential diagnosis
Ancillary testing
Lumbar puncture
Neuroimaging
Ophthalmic imaging
Vestibulocochlear testing
Histopathology
Pathophysiology
Treatment
Clinical case
Summary
Chapter 44. Retinal vascular regeneration
Introduction
Clinical evidence for reperfusion of the ischemic retina
Cell therapies to regenerate the retinal vasculature
Molecular pathways that modulate retinal vascular repair
Senolytics in the retina and vascular regeneration
Concluding remarks
Chapter 45. Vascular changes after vitreoretinal surgery
Morphologic vascular changes
Perfusion vascular changes
Pars plana vitrectomy
Retinal detachment
Conclusions
Chapter 46. Retinal and choroidal vascular diseases associated with COVID-19
Overview and pathophysiology
Primary COVID-19-related disease
Secondary COVID-19-related disease
COVID-19 vaccine-related disease
Summary
Index

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Retinal and Choroidal Vascular Diseases of the Eye

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Jay Chhablani