Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries

Dedication

Preface to Fourth Edition

Preface to Third Edition

Preface to Second Edition

Preface to First Edition

Acknowledgements

Terminology

Notation

Use of References

List of Contributors

Volume 1

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Management Leadership

1.2 Industrial Safety and Loss Trends

1.3 Safety and Environmental Concerns

1.4 Loss Prevention – 1

1.5 Large Single-Stream Plants

1.6 Loss Prevention – 2

1.7 Total Loss Control

1.8 Quality Assurance

1.9 Total Quality Management

1.10 Risk Management

1.11 Safety-Critical Systems

1.12 Environment and Sustainable Development

1.13 Responsible Care

1.14 Academic and Research Activities

1.15 Overview

Chapter 2. Incidents and Loss Statistics

2.1 The Incident Process

2.2 Standard Industrial Classification

2.3 Injury Statistics

2.4 Major Disasters

2.5 Major Process Hazards

2.6 Fire Loss Statistics

2.7 Fire and Explosion

2.8 Causes of Loss

2.9 Down-Time Losses

2.10 Trend of Injuries

2.11 Trend of Losses

2.12 Case Histories

Chapter 3. Legislation and Law

3.1 US Legislation

3.2 US Regulatory Agencies

3.3 Codes and Standards

3.4 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970

3.5 US Environmental Legislation

3.6 US Toxic Substances Legislation

3.7 US Accidental Chemical Release Legislation

3.8 US Transport Legislation

3.9 US Security Legislation

3.10 US Developing Legislation

3.11 EU Legislations

3.12 Other Legislation

3.13 Regulatory Support

3.14 US Chemical Safety Board

Chapter 4. Major Hazard Control

Foreword by Jerry Havens

4.1 Superstar Technologies

4.2 Hazard Monitoring

4.3 Risk Issues

4.4 Risk Perception

4.5 Risk Management

4.6 Hazard Control Policy

4.7 Nuclear Hazard Control

4.8 Process Hazard Control: Background

4.9 Process Hazard Control: Advisory Committee on Major Hazards

4.10 Process Hazard Control: Major Hazards Arrangements

4.11 Process Hazard Control: Planning

4.12 Process Hazard Control: European Community

4.13 Process Hazard Control: USA

Chapter 5. Economics and Insurance

5.1 Economics of Loss Prevention

5.2 Cost of Losses

5.3 Cost of Prevention

5.4 Level of Loss Prevention Expenditure

5.5 Insurance of Process Plant

5.6 Property Insurance

5.7 Individual Insurance

5.8 Business Interruption Insurance

5.9 Other Insurance Aspects

5.10 Notation

Chapter 6. Management and Management Systems

6.1 Management Attitude

6.2 Management Commitment and Leadership

6.3 Management Organization

6.4 Competent People

6.5 Systems and Procedures

6.6 Project Safety Reviews

6.7 Management of Change

6.8 Standards and Codes of Practice

6.9 Pressure Systems

6.10 Documentation

6.11 Audit System

6.12 Independent Checks

6.13 Major Hazards

6.14 Quality Management

6.15 Safety Management

6.16 Policy

6.17 Organization

6.18 Planning

6.19 Measurement

6.20 Control

6.21 Audit

6.22 Process Knowledge

6.23 Safety Strategies

6.24 Human Factors

6.25 Contractors

6.26 Safety Management Systems

6.27 Process Safety Management

6.28 CCPS Management Guidelines

6.29 Regulatory Control

6.30 STATAS

Chapter 7. Reliability Engineering

7.1 Development of Reliability Engineering

7.2 Reliability Engineering in the Process Industries

7.3 Definition of Reliability

7.4 Meanings of Probability

7.5 Some Probability Relationships

7.6 Some Reliability Relationships

7.7 Failure Distributions

7.8 Reliability of Some Standard Systems

7.9 Reliability of Complex Systems

7.10 Markov Models

7.11 Joint Density Functions

7.12 Monte Carlo Simulation

7.13 Availability

7.14 Bayes’ Theorem

7.15 Renewal Theory

7.16 Replacement Models

7.17 Models of Failure: Strength–Load Interaction

7.18 Models of Failure: Some Other Models

7.19 Failure Behavior and Regimes

7.20 Failure Data Analysis

7.21 Reliability in Design

7.22 Reliability Prediction

7.23 Reliability Growth, Testing, and Demonstration

7.24 Maintainability

7.25 Maintenance Activities and Policies

7.26 Reliability-Centered Maintenance

7.27 Life Cycle Costing

7.28 Notation

Chapter 8. Hazard Identification

8.1 Safety Audits

8.2 Management System Audits

8.3 Checklists

8.4 Materials Properties

8.5 Pilot Plants

8.6 Hazard Indices

8.7 Hazard Studies

8.8 What If? Analysis

8.9 Event Tree and Fault Tree Analysis

8.10 Bow-Tie Method

8.11 Preliminary Hazard Analysis

8.12 Screening Analysis Techniques

8.13 Hazard and Operability Studies

8.14 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis

8.15 Sneak Analysis

8.16 Computer HAZOP

8.17 Human Error Analysis

8.18 Scenario Development

8.19 Consequence Modeling

8.20 Process Safety Review System

8.21 Choice of Method

8.22 Filtering and Follow-up

8.23 Safety Review Systems

8.24 Hazard Ranking Methods

8.25 Hazard Warning Analysis

8.26 Plant Safety Audits

8.27 Other Methods

8.28 Quality Assurance

8.29 Quality Assurance: Completeness

8.30 Quality Assurance: QUASA

8.31 Standards

8.32 Notation

Chapter 9. Hazard Assessment

9.1 Background

9.2 Hazard Analysis

9.3 Risk Assessment

9.4 Event Data

9.5 Fault Trees

9.6 Event Trees

9.7 Bow-Tie Diagrams

9.8 Cause–Consequence Diagrams

9.9 Dependent Failures

9.10 Expert Judgment

9.11 Rare Events and External Threats

9.12 Human Factors and Human Error

9.13 Management Aspects

9.14 Hazard Model Systems

9.15 Population Characteristics

9.16 Modification of Exposure

9.17 Injury Relations

9.18 Presentation of Results

9.19 Confidence in Results

9.20 Risk Criteria

9.21 Guide Assessments

9.22 Hazard Impact Model

9.23 Simplified Assessment Methods

9.24 Decay Relations

9.25 Hazard Warning

9.26 Computer Aids

9.27 Risk Assessment Debate

9.28 Overview

Chapter 10. Plant Siting and Layout

10.1 Plant Siting

10.2 Plant Layout

10.3 Layout Generation

10.4 Layout Techniques and Aids

10.5 Layout Planning and Development

10.6 Site Layout Features

10.7 Plot Layout Considerations

10.8 Equipment Layout

10.9 Piping Layout

10.10 Storage Layout

10.11 Separation Distances

10.12 Hazardous Area Classification

10.13 Hazard Assessment

10.14 Hazard Models

10.15 Fire Protection

10.16 Effluents

10.17 Drain Systems

10.18 Blast-Resistant Structures

10.19 Control Buildings

10.20 Portable Buildings

10.21 Toxics Protection

10.22 Modular Plants

10.23 Notation

Chapter 11. Process Design

11.1 The Design Process

11.2 Conceptual – Front End Design

11.3 Detailed Engineering

11.4 Design Assessments

11.5 Licensors, Vendors, and Contractors

11.6 Inherently Safer Design

11.7 Unit Processes

11.8 Unit Operations and Equipments

11.9 Operating Conditions

11.10 Utilities

11.11 Particular Chemicals

11.12 Particular Processes and Plants

11.13 Operational Deviations

11.14 Impurities

11.15 CCPS Engineering Design Guidelines

11.16 Integration of Safety into the Process Design

Chapter 12. Pressure System Design

12.1 Pressure Systems

12.2 Pressure System Components

12.3 Steels and Their Properties

12.4 Pressure Vessel Design

12.5 Joining, Fastening, and Welding

12.6 Pressure Vessel Standards and Codes

12.7 Pipework and Valves

12.8 Heat Exchangers

12.9 Fired Heaters and Furnaces

12.10 Process Machinery

12.11 Insulation

12.12 Overpressure Protection

12.13 Overpressure Protection: Pressure Relief Devices

12.14 Overpressure Protection: Relief System Design

12.15 Overpressure Protection: Fire Relief

12.16 Overpressure Protection: Vacuum and Thermal Relief

12.17 Overpressure Protection: Special Situations

12.18 Overpressure Protection: Disposal

12.19 Overpressure Protection: Pressure Relief Valves

12.20 Overpressure Protection: Bursting Discs

12.21 Overpressure Protection: Installation of Relief Devices

12.22 Flare and Vent Systems

12.23 Blowdown and Depressuring Systems

12.24 Pressure Containment

12.25 Containment of Toxic Materials

12.26 Pressure Systems for Chlorine

12.27 Failure in Pressure Systems

12.28 Fracture Mechanics

12.29 Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics

12.30 Failure of Vessels, Equipment, and Machinery

12.31 Computer-Aid Pressure and Pressure Protection System Design

Chapter 13. Control System Design

13.1 Process Characteristics

13.2 Control System Characteristics

13.3 Instrument System Design

13.4 Process Computer Control

13.5 Control of Batch Processes

13.6 Control of Particular Units

13.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

13.8 Instrument Failure

13.9 Trip Systems

13.10 Interlock Systems

13.11 Programmable Logic Systems

13.12 Programmable Electronic Systems

13.13 Software Engineering

13.14 Safety-Related Instrument Systems

13.15 CCPS Safe Automation Guidelines

13.16 Emergency Shut-Down Systems

13.17 Level of Automation

13.18 Toxic Storage Instrumentation

13.19 Notation

Chapter 14. Human Factors and Human Error

14.1 Aims of Human Factors

14.2 Role of the Process Operator

14.3 Human Factors in Process Control

14.4 Process Operator Functions

14.5 Process Operator Studies

14.6 Allocation of Function

14.7 Human Information Processing

14.8 Case Studies in Human Error

14.9 Definition of Human Error

14.10 Human Factor Approaches to Assessing Human Error

14.11 Quantitative Human Reliability Analysis (HRA)

14.12 Success Likelihood Index Method (SLIM)

14.13 Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique (HEART)

14.14 Dougherty and Fragola Method (D&F)

14.15 CCPS Method

14.16 Other Methods

14.17 Human Factor Approaches to Mitigating Human Error

14.18 Alarm Systems

14.19 Human Error and Plant Design

14.20 Fault Administration

14.21 Malfunction Detection

14.22 Computer-Based Aids

14.23 Job Design

14.24 Personnel Selection

14.25 Training

14.26 CCPS Guidelines for Preventing Human Error in Process Safety

14.27 Notation

Chapter 15. Emission and Dispersion

15.1 Emission

15.2 Two-phase Flow

15.3 Two-phase Flow: Fauske Models

15.4 Two-phase Flow: Leung Models

15.5 Vessel Depressurization

15.6 Pressure Relief Valves

15.7 Vessel Blowdown

15.8 Vessel Rupture

15.9 Pipeline Rupture

15.10 Vaporization

15.11 Dispersion

15.12 Meteorology

15.13 Topography

15.14 Dispersion Modeling

15.15 Passive Dispersion

15.16 Passive Dispersion: Models

15.17 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion over Particular Surfaces

15.18 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion in Particular Conditions

15.19 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion Parameters

15.20 Dispersion of Jets and Plumes

15.21 Dispersion of Two-phase Flashing Jets

15.22 Dense Gas Dispersion

15.23 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Source Terms

15.24 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Models and Modeling

15.25 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Modified Conventional Models

15.26 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Van Ulden Model

15.27 Dispersion of Dense Gas: British Gas/Cremer and Warner Model

15.28 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DENZ and CRUNCH

15.29 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SIGMET

15.30 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLAB and FEM3

15.31 Dispersion of Dense Gas: HEGADAS and Related Models

15.32 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DEGADIS

15.33 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLUMP and HEAVYGAS

15.34 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Workbook Model

15.35 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DRIFT and Related Models

15.36 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Some Other Models and Reviews

15.37 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Field Trials

15.38 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Thorney Island Trials

15.39 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Physical Modeling

15.40 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Terrain, Obstructions, and Buildings

15.41 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Validation and Comparison

15.42 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Particular Gases

15.43 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources

15.44 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources – PLUME

15.45 Concentration and Concentration Fluctuations

15.46 Flammable Gas Clouds

15.47 Toxic Gas Clouds

15.48 Dispersion over Short Distances

15.49 Hazard Ranges for Dispersion

15.50 Transformation and Removal Processes

15.51 Infiltration into Buildings

15.52 Source and Dispersion Modeling: CCPS Guidelines

15.53 Vapor Release Mitigation: Containment and Barriers

15.54 Vapor Cloud Mitigation: CCPS Guidelines

15.55 Fugitive Emissions

15.56 Leaks and Spillages

15.57 Classification of Models

15.58 Notation

Chapter 16. Fire

16.1 Fire

16.2 Flammability of Gases and Vapors

16.3 Combustion Phenomena

16.4 Flammability of Aerosols

16.5 Ignition Sources

16.6 Self-Heating

16.7 Static Electricity

16.8 Electrical Equipment

16.9 Hazardous Area Classification

16.10 Ignition Models

16.11 Fire in Process Plant

16.12 Flames

16.13 Radiant Heat Transfer

16.14 Vapor Cloud Fires

16.15 Fireballs

16.16 Fireballs from Explosives

16.17 Pool Fires

16.18 Flares

16.19 Jet Flames

16.20 Engulfing Fires

16.21 Effects of Fire: Damage

16.22 Effects of Fire: Injury

16.23 Fire Protection of Process Plant

16.24 Passive Fire Protection

16.25 Fire Fighting Agents

16.26 Fire Protection Using Water: Extinguishment and Control

16.27 Fire Protection Using Water: Exposure Protection

16.28 Fire Protection Using Foam

16.29 Fire Protection Using Dry Chemicals

16.30 Fire Protection Using Vaporizing Liquids

16.31 Fire Protection Using Inert Gas

16.32 Fire Protection Using Special Methods

16.33 Fire Protection Using Portable Extinguishers

16.34 Fire Protection Applications

16.35 Firefighting in Process Plant

16.36 Fire and Fire Protection in Buildings

16.37 Fire Protection in Transport

16.38 Fire Hazard

16.39 Hazard Range of Fire

16.40 Notation

Volume 2

Chapter 17. Explosion

17.1 Explosion

17.2 Detonation

17.3 Explosives

17.4 Explosion Energy

17.5 Deflagration Inside Plant

17.6 Detonation Inside Vessels and Pipes

17.7 Explosions in Closed Vessels

17.8 Explosions in Buildings

17.9 Explosions in Large Enclosures

17.10 Explosion Prevention

17.11 Explosion Protection

17.12 Explosion Venting of Vessels

17.13 Explosion Venting of Ducts and Pipes

17.14 Explosion Relief of Buildings

17.15 Explosion Relief of Large Enclosures

17.16 Venting of Reactors

17.17 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: DIERS

17.18 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Flow

17.19 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Sizing

17.20 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Leung Model

17.21 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: ICI Scheme

17.22 Venting of Reactors: Relief Disposal

17.23 Venting of Reactors: CCPS Work

17.24 Venting of Storage Vessels

17.25 Explosive Shock in Air

17.26 Condensed Phase Explosions

17.27 Vessel Burst Explosions

17.28 Vapor Cloud Explosions

17.29 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions

17.30 Explosions in Process Plant

17.31 Effects of Explosions

17.32 Explosion Damage to Structures

17.33 Explosion Damage to Housing

17.34 Explosion Damage by Missiles

17.35 Explosion Damage to Plant by Missiles

17.36 Explosion of a Cased Explosive

17.37 Explosion of an Explosive Load

17.38 Explosion Injury to Persons Outdoors

17.39 Explosion Injury to Persons Indoors

17.40 Explosion Injury from Flying Glass

17.41 Explosion Injury from Penetrating Fragments

17.42 Explosion Injury from Penetrating Fragments: Model of Gilbert, Lees, and Scilly

17.43 Dust Explosions

17.44 Dust Explosibility Characteristics

17.45 Dust Ignition Sources

17.46 Dust Explosion Prevention

17.47 Dust Explosion Protection

17.48 Dust Explosion Venting

17.49 Dust-Handling Plants

17.50 Dust Fires

17.51 Explosion Hazard

17.52 Hazard Range of Explosions

17.53 Notation

Chapter 18. Toxic Release

18.1 Toxic Effects

18.2 Toxic Substances

18.3 Toxicity Assessment

18.4 Control of Toxic Hazard: Regulatory Controls

18.5 Hygiene Standards

18.6 Hygiene Standards: Occupational Exposure Limits

18.7 Carcinogens

18.8 Dusts

18.9 Metals

18.10 Emergency Exposure Limits

18.11 Gas Toxicity

18.12 Gas Toxicity: Experimental Determination

18.13 Gas Toxicity: Physiological Factors

18.14 Gas Toxicity: Toxicity Data

18.15 Gas Toxicity: Vulnerability Model

18.16 Gas Toxicity: Major Industrial Gases

18.17 Gas Toxicity: MHAP Studies

18.18 Gas Toxicity: Chlorine

18.19 Gas Toxicity: Green Book Relations

18.20 Gas Toxicity: Probit Equations

18.21 Gas Toxicity: HSE Dangerous Dose

18.22 Gas Toxicity: Combustion Gases

18.23 Ultratoxic Substances

18.24 Plant Design for Toxic Substances

18.25 Toxic Gas Detection

18.26 Toxic Release Response

18.27 Toxic Release Case Histories

18.28 Toxic Release Risk

18.29 Chlorine Hazard Assessment

18.30 Other Chemicals Hazard Assessment

18.31 Hazard Assessment Methodology

18.32 Notation

Chapter 19. Plant Commissioning and Inspection

19.1 Plant Commissioning

19.2 Plant Inspection

19.3 Pressure Vessel Inspection

19.4 Pressure Piping Systems Inspection

19.5 Non-Destructive Testing

19.6 Materials Verification

19.7 Pressure Testing

19.8 Leak Testing and Detection

19.9 Plant Monitoring

19.10 Performance Monitoring

19.11 Condition Monitoring

19.12 Vibration Monitoring

19.13 Corrosion Monitoring

19.14 Acoustic Emission Monitoring

19.15 Plant Monitoring: Specific Equipment

19.16 Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring

19.17 Notation

Chapter 20. Plant Operation

20.1 Inherently Safer Design to Prevent or Minimize Operator Errors

20.2 Operating Discipline

20.3 Good Operating Practices

20.4 Operating Procedures and Instructions

20.5 Emergency Procedures

20.6 Handover and Permit Systems

20.7 Operator Training

20.8 Plant Patrols

20.9 Modifications to the Process

20.10 Operation and Maintenance

20.11 Start-up and Shut-Down

20.12 Start-up of Refinery Units

20.13 Shut-down of Refinery Units

20.14 Operation of Fired Heaters

20.15 Operation of Driers

20.16 Operation of Storage

20.17 Operational Activities and Hazards

20.18 Sampling

20.19 Trip Systems

20.20 Identification Measures

20.21 Exposure of Personnel

20.22 Security

20.23 Notation

Chapter 21. Equipment Maintenance and Modification

21.1 Management of Maintenance

21.2 Hazards of Maintenance

21.3 Preparation for Maintenance

21.4 Isolation

21.5 Purging

21.6 Cleaning

21.7 Confined Spaces

21.8 Permit Systems

21.9 Maintenance Equipment

21.10 Flanged Joints

21.11 Hot Work

21.12 Tank Cleaning, Repair and Demolition

21.13 On-Line Repairs

21.14 Maintenance of Particular Equipment

21.15 Equipment Removal

21.16 Deteriorated Equipment

21.17 Some Maintenance Problems

21.18 Major Shut-Downs

21.19 Maintenance Information Systems

21.20 Spares Inventory

21.21 Computer Systems

21.22 Modifications to Equipment

21.23 Software and Network Maintenance

21.24 Managing Change

21.25 Some Modification Problems

21.26 Major Plant Expansions

21.27 Maintenance Optimization

21.28 Maintenance Personnel Training

21.29 Notation

Chapter 22. Storage

22.1 General Considerations

22.2 API Standards

22.3 Petroleum Product Storage

22.4 Storage Tanks and Vessels

22.5 Selection of Materials for Storage Tanks

22.6 Storage Layout

22.7 Venting and Relief

22.8 Fire Prevention and Protection

22.9 LPG Storage

22.10 LPG Storage: Pressure Storage

22.11 LPG Storage: Refrigerated Storage

22.12 LNG Storage

22.13 LNG Storage: Refrigerated Storage

22.14 Hydrogen Storage

22.15 Toxics Storage

22.16 High Toxic Hazard Materials: CCPS Guidelines

22.17 Chlorine Storage

22.18 Ammonia Storage

22.19 Ammonia Storage: Pressure Storage

22.20 Ammonia Storage: Refrigerated Storage

22.21 Ammonia Storage: Stress Corrosion Cracking

22.22 Other Chemicals Storage

22.23 Bunds

22.24 Underground Storage Tanks

22.25 Glass Reinforced Plastic Storage

22.26 Filling Ratio

22.27 Loading and Unloading Facilities

22.28 Loading and Unloading Facilities: Particular Chemicals

22.29 Drum and Cylinder Storage

22.30 Warehouses

22.31 Warehouses: Particular Chemicals Storage

22.32 Storage Case Histories

22.33 Storage Risk

22.34 LPG Storage Hazard Assessment

22.35 LNG Storage Hazard Assessment

22.36 Ammonia Storage Hazard Assessment

22.37 Storage Tanks Protection from Terrorism

22.38 Notation

Chapter 23. Transport

23.1 General Considerations

23.2 International Codes

23.3 Classification, Packaging, and Labeling

23.4 Transport Containers

23.5 Road Transport

23.6 Road Transport Environment

23.7 Rail Transport

23.8 Rail Transport Environment

23.9 Road and Rail Tunnels

23.10 Waterway Transport

23.11 Pipeline Transport

23.12 Marine Transport: Shipping

23.13 Marine Transport: Regulatory Controls

23.14 Marine Transport: Ports and Harbors

23.15 Marine Transport: Shipboard Fire and Fire Protection

23.16 Marine Transport: Liquefied Flammable Gas

23.17 Marine Transport: Chemicals

23.18 Marine Transport Environment

23.19 Air Transport

23.20 Transport Emergency Planning and Spill Control

23.21 Transport Case Histories

23.22 Transport Risk

23.23 Transport Risk Assessment

23.24 Road Transport Risk Assessment

23.25 Rail Transport Risk Assessment

23.26 Tunnel Transport Risk Assessment

23.27 Pipeline Transport Risk Assessment

23.28 Marine Transport Risk Assessment

23.29 Transport Hazard Assessment: Comparative Risks

23.30 Security Issues

23.31 Notation

Chapter 24. Emergency Planning

24.1 Introduction

24.2 On-site Emergency Planning

24.3 Resources and Capabilities

24.4 Developing an Emergency Plan

24.5 Training

24.6 Essential Functions and Nominated Personnel

24.7 Declaration and Communication of the Emergency

24.8 Evacuation

24.9 Cooperation and Drills

24.10 Public Relations

24.11 Off-Site Emergency Planning

24.12 Transport Emergency Planning

24.13 Emergency Planning for Disasters

24.14 Spectators

24.15 Emergency Incidents

24.16 Recovery

24.17 Regulations and Standards

Appendix A NFPA Publications

Chapter 25. Personal Safety

25.1 Human Factors

25.2 Occupational Health

25.3 Occupational Hygiene

25.4 COSHH Regulations 1988

25.5 Dust Hazards

25.6 Asbestos Dust

25.7 Ventilation

25.8 Skin Disease

25.9 Physico-Chemical Hazards

25.10 Ionizing Radiation Hazards

25.11 Non-Ionizing Radiation Hazards

25.12 Machinery Hazards

25.13 Electricity Hazards

25.14 Other Activities and Hazards

25.15 Personal Protective Equipment

25.16 Respiratory Protective Equipment

25.17 Rescue and First Aid

25.18 Ergonomics

25.19 Notation

Chapter 26. Accident Research

26.1 Definition of Accidents

26.2 Classification of Accidents

26.3 Accident Causation

26.4 Accident Models

26.5 Accident Proneness

26.6 Human Error

26.7 Social Factors

26.8 Impact of Safety Culture

26.9 Safety Training

26.10 Major Hazards Research

Chapter 27. Information Feedback

27.1 The Learning Process

27.2 Incident Reporting

27.3 Operation Monitoring

27.4 Accident Models

27.5 Accident Investigation

27.6 Fire Investigation

27.7 Explosion Investigation

27.8 Accident Investigation: CCPS Guidelines

27.9 Public Accident Inquiries

27.10 Organizational Memory

27.11 Case Histories

27.12 Information Exchange

27.13 Accident Databases

27.14 Safety Performance Measurement

27.15 Safety Performance Monitoring

27.16 Near Miss Reporting

27.17 Education

27.18 Teaching Aids

27.19 Notation

Chapter 28. Safety Management Systems

28.1 Safety Culture

28.2 Safety Organization

28.3 Safety Policy Statement

28.4 Safety Representatives

28.5 Safety Committees

28.6 Safety Adviser

28.7 Safety Training

28.8 Safety Communication

28.9 Safety Auditing

28.10 Safety Rating

28.11 Management Procedure to Implement Required Changes to Establish Proper Safety

28.12 Use of Tools for Better Safety Management Systems

Chapter 29. Computer Aids

29.1 Expert Systems in Process Engineering

29.2 Combination of Process Safety with Design and Optimization

29.3 Computer Aided Process Engineering

29.4 Pipework and Fluid Flow

29.5 Unit Operation and Equipment

29.6 Databases, Bibliographies, and Indexes

29.7 Compliance Management

29.8 Computational Fluid Dynamics

29.9 Hazard Identification

29.10 Pressure Relief Devices Sizing

29.11 Hazard Assessment Systems

29.12 Virtual Training

29.13 Transport

Chapter 30. Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems

30.1 Knowledge Representation

30.2 Databases

30.3 Prepositional Logic

30.4 Predicate Logic

30.5 Non-Deductive Inference

30.6 Production Rules

30.7 Non-classical Logics

30.8 Uncertainty and Inconsistency

30.9 Probabilistic Reasoning

30.10 Fuzzy Logic

30.11 Programming Languages

30.12 Structured Knowledge

30.13 Search

30.14 Matching and Pattern Recognition

30.15 Problem-Solving and Games

30.16 Vision

30.17 Natural Language

30.18 Planning

30.19 Learning

30.20 Inductive Learning

30.21 Neural Networks

30.22 Graphs, Trees, and Networks

30.23 Directed Graphs

30.24 Expert Systems

30.25 Expert Systems: Some Systems and Tools

30.26 Qualitative Modeling

30.27 Engineering Design

30.28 Process Applications

30.29 Project Aids

30.30 Process Modeling

30.31 DESIGN-KIT

30.32 Process Synthesis

30.33 Plant Design: Synthesis

30.34 Plant Design: Analysis

30.35 Expert Systems: Some Process Systems

30.36 Fault Propagation

30.37 Hazard Identification

30.38 Hazard Identification: HAZID

30.39 Hazard Identification: Enhancements

30.40 Fault Tree Analysis

30.41 Fault Tree Synthesis

30.42 Fault Tree Synthesis: FAULTFINDER

30.43 Operating Procedure Synthesis

30.44 Process Monitoring

30.45 Fault Administration

30.46 Malfunction Detection

30.47 Notation

Chapter 31. Incident Investigation

31.1 Preface

31.2 General Investigation Concepts

31.3 Evidence Issues

31.4 The Investigation Team

31.5 Identifying Root Causes

31.6 Recommendations, Reports, and Lessons Learned

31.7 Management System for Investigations

Chapter 32. Inherently Safer Design

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Definitions

32.3 History of Inherently Safer Design

32.4 Strategies for Process Risk Management

32.5 Inherently Safer Design Strategies

32.6 Inherently Safer Design Conflicts

32.7 Measuring Inherent Safety Characteristics of a Process

32.8 Inherently Safer Design and the Process Life Cycle

32.9 Implementing Inherently Safer Design

32.10 Inherent Safety and Chemical Plant Security

32.11 Inherently Safer Design References

Chapter 33. Reactive Chemicals

33.1 Background

33.2 Technical

33.3 Program Management

Chapter 34. Safety Instrumented Systems

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Examples of SIS

34.3 SIS Standards

34.4 Layers of Protection Analysis (LOPA)

34.5 Level of Automation

34.6 Design

34.7 Verify

34.8 Operate

34.9 Maintain

34.10 Test

34.11 Special Applications

Chapter 35. Chemical Security

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Security Management System

35.3 Security Strategies

35.4 Countermeasures and Security Risk Management Concepts

35.5 SVA Methodologies

35.6 Defining the Risk to be Managed

35.7 Overview of an SVA Methodology

35.8 Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards (CFATS)

35.9 Chemical Security Assessment Tool (CSAT)

35.10 Inherently Safer Technology (IST)

Chapter 36. Safety Culture

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Definition of Safety Culture

36.3 Developments in Safety Culture

36.4 Evaluating Safety Culture

36.5 Implementing Safety Culture

36.6 Conclusion

Chapter 37. Metrics and Performance Measurements

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Different Types of Metrics

37.3 Choosing Useful Metrics

37.4 Implementing the Selected Metrics

37.5 Application of Metrics with Examples

37.6 Future Efforts for Generating Industry-Wide Metrics

37.7 Conclusion

Chapter 38. Benchmarking in the Process Industry

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Benchmarking Outline

38.3 Possible Barriers and Resolutions for Benchmarking

38.4 Examples of Benchmarking Activities

Chapter 39. Liquefied Natural Gas

39.1 LNG Properties

39.2 LNG Industry

39.3 LNG Hazards

39.4 LNG Spills Experiments and Modeling

39.5 Safety Measures in LNG Facilities

39.6 Regulatory Authorities and Regulations

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