Part 1. Fundamentals of Lead–Acid Batteries
Chapter 1. Invention and Development of the Lead–Acid Battery
- 1.1. A Prelude
- 1.2. Gaston Planté—The Inventor of the Lead–Acid Battery
- 1.3. What Pains Had the Lead–Acid Battery to Go Through
- 1.4. The Lead–Acid Battery in the 20th Century—Second Stage in Its Development
- 1.5. Applications of Lead–Acid Batteries
- 1.6. Challenges Calling for a New Stage in the Development of the Lead–Acid Battery
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Lead–Acid Batteries
- 2.1. Thermodynamics of the Lead–Acid Battery
- 2.2. Electrode Systems Formed During Anodic Polarization of Pb in H2SO4 Solution
- 2.3. The Pb/PbSO4/H2SO4 Electrode
- 2.4. H2/H+ Electrode on Pb Surface
- 2.5. The Pb/PbO/PbSO4 Electrode System
- 2.6. The Pb/PbO2/PbSO4 Electrode System
- 2.7. Electrochemical Preparation of the Me/PbO2 Electrode
- 2.8. Electrochemical Behavior of the Pb/PbO2/H2SO4 Electrode
- 2.9. Hydration and Amorphization of Active-Mass PbO2 Particles and Impact on the Discharge Processes
- 2.10. The H2O/O2 Electrode System
- 2.11. Elementary Processes During Charge and Discharge of the Positive and Negative Electrodes in a Lead–Acid Cell
- 2.12. Anodic Corrosion of Lead and Lead Alloys in the Lead Dioxide Potential Region
- 2.13. Introduction to the Lead–Acid Cell
Part 2. Materials Used for Lead–Acid Battery Manufacture
Chapter 3. H2SO4 Electrolyte—An Active Material in the Lead–Acid Cell
- 3.1. H2SO4 Solutions Used as Electrolytes in the Battery Industry
- 3.2. Purity of H2SO4 Used in Lead–Acid Batteries
- 3.3. Dissociation of H2SO4
- 3.4. Electrical Conductivity of H2SO4 Solutions
- 3.5. Influence of Temperature on the Performance of Lead–Acid Batteries
- 3.5.1. Influence of Temperature on Water Loss in Lead–Acid Batteries
- 3.6. Dependence of the Electromotive Force of a Lead–Acid Cell on Electrolyte Concentration and Its Influence on Charge Voltage
- 3.7. Distribution of the Sulfuric Acid Solution in the Active Block of the Cell
- 3.8. Utilization of the Active Materials in the Lead–Acid Battery and Battery Performance
- 3.9. Correlation Between the Electrochemical Activity of PbO2/PbSO4 Electrode and H2SO4 Electrolyte Concentration
- 3.10. Correlation Between Solubility of PbSO4 Crystals and Electrolyte Concentration
- 3.11. Influence of H2SO4 Electrolyte Concentration on Battery Performance
- 3.12. Additives to Electrolyte
- 3.13. Contaminants (Impurities) in Electrolyte Solution
- 3.14. Processes Causing Electrolyte Stratification and Influence of Electrolyte Stratification on Battery Performance
Chapter 4. Lead Alloys and Grids. Grid Design Principles
- 4.1. Battery Industry Requirements to Lead Alloys
- 4.2. Purity Specifications for Lead Used in the Battery Industry
- 4.3. Lead–Antimony Alloys
- 4.4. Lead–Calcium Alloys
- 4.5. Lead–Calcium–Tin Alloys
- 4.6. Lead–Tin Alloys
- 4.7. Grid Design Principles
- 4.8. Grid/Spine Casting
- 4.9. Continuous Plate Production Process
- 4.10. Tubular Positive Plates
- 4.11. Copper-Stretch-Metal Negative Grids
Chapter 5. Leady Oxide
- 5.1. Physical Properties of Lead Oxide and Red Lead
- 5.2. Mechanism of Thermal Oxidation of Lead
- 5.3. Production of Leady Oxide
- 5.4. Characteristics of Leady Oxide
- 5.5. Influence of Leady Oxide Properties on Battery Performance Characteristics
Part 3. Processes During Paste Preparation and Curing of the Plates
Chapter 6. Pastes and Grid Pasting
- 6.1. Introduction
- 6.2. Fundamentals
- 6.3. Technology of Paste Preparation
Chapter 7. Additives to the Pastes for Positive and Negative Battery Plates
- 7.1. Additives to the Pastes for Negative Plate Manufacture
- 7.2. Additives to the Positive Paste
Chapter 8. Curing of Battery Plates
- 8.1. Introduction
- 8.2. Fundamentals
- 8.3. Technology of Plate Curing
Part 4. Plate Formation
Chapter 9. Soaking of Cured Plates Before Formation
- 9.1. Technological Procedures Involved in the Formation of Lead–Acid Battery Plates
- 9.2. H2SO4 Electrolyte During Soaking and Formation
- 9.3. Processes During Soaking of 3BS-Cured Plates
- 9.4. Soaking of 4BS-Cured Pastes
- 9.5. Influence of the Soaking Process on Battery Performance
Chapter 10. Formation of Positive Lead–Acid Battery Plates
- 10.1. Equilibrium Potentials of the Electrode Systems Formed During the Formation Process
- 10.2. Formation of Positive Active Mass (PAM) From 3BS-Cured Pastes
- 10.3. Formation of Plates Prepared With 4BS-Cured Pastes
- 10.4. Mechanisms of the Crystallization Processes During Formation of Positive Plates With 4BS Paste
- 10.5. Structure of the Formed Interface Grid/Corrosion Layer/Active Mass
- 10.6. Influence of the H2SO4/LO Ratio on the Proportion Between β- and α-PbO2 in PAM and on Plate Capacity
- 10.7. Structure of the Positive Active Mass
- 10.8. Influence of Grid-Alloying Additives on the Electrochemical Activity of PbO2 Binders
Chapter 11. Processes During Formation of Negative Battery Plates
- 11.1. Equilibrium Potentials of the Electrochemical Reactions of Formation
- 11.2. Reactions During Formation of Negative Plate
- 11.3. Zonal Processes
- 11.4. Structure of Negative Active Mass
- 11.5. Effect of Expander on the Processes of Formation of NAM Structure and Factors Responsible for Expander Disintegration
Chapter 12. Technology of Formation
- 12.1. Introduction
- 12.2. Influence of Active Mass Structure on Plate Capacity
- 12.3. Initial Stages of Formation of Lead–Acid Batteries
- 12.4. Formation of Positive- and Negative Active Materials From Cured Pastes
- 12.5. Influence of PbO2 Crystal Modifications on the Capacity of Positive Plates. Formation Parameters That Affect the α/β-PbO2 Proportion
- 12.6. Criteria Indicating End of Formation
- 12.7. Influence of Current-Collector Surface on Formation of PbSO4 Crystals at Grid/PAM Interface
- 12.8. Method for Shortening the Duration of the Formation Process
- 12.9. Identification of Defective Batteries After Formation
Part 5. Battery Storage and VRLA Batteries
Chapter 13. Processes After Formation of the Plates and During Battery Storage
- 13.1. State of Battery Plates After Formation
- 13.2. Dry-Charged Batteries
- 13.3. Wet-Charged Batteries
Chapter 14. Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid (VRLA) Batteries
- 14.1. Recombination of Hydrogen and Oxygen Into Water
- 14.2. Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid Batteries (VRLAB)
- 14.3. Summary
Chapter 15. Lead–Carbon Electrodes
- 15.1. Introduction
- 15.2. Carbon Used as Additive to the Negative Active Material
- 15.3. Enhancing the Performance of the Negative Plates of Lead–Acid Batteries by Combining With a Supercapacitor
- 15.4. Hydrogen Evolution on the Lead–Carbon Electrode
- 15.5. Sulfation of the Lead–Carbon Electrodes of Lead–Acid Batteries on High-Rate Partial-State-of-Charge Cycling
Part 6. Calculation of the Active Materials in a Lead–Acid Cell
Chapter 16. Calculation of the Active Materials for Lead–Acid Cells
- 16.1. Theoretical Calculation of the Active Materials in Lead–Acid Batteries
- 16.2. Examples for Calculating the Active Materials and the Energy Needed for the Different Technological Processes of Lead–Acid Battery Manufacture
- 16.3. Measuring of Electrode Potentials