Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles

1st Edition - February 21, 2017
Imprint: Elsevier
Editors: Jürgen Garche, Eckhard Karden, Patrick T. Moseley, David A. J. Rand
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 6 3 7 0 0 - 0
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 4 - 6 3 7 0 3 - 1

Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles provides an overview on the innovations that were recently introduced in automotive lead-acid batteries and other aspects of current r… Read more

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Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles provides an overview on the innovations that were recently introduced in automotive lead-acid batteries and other aspects of current research. Innovative concepts are presented, some of which aim to make lead-acid technology a candidate for higher levels of powertrain hybridization, namely 48-volt mild or high-volt full hybrids.

Lead-acid batteries continue to dominate the market as storage devices for automotive starting and power supply systems, but are facing competition from alternative storage technologies and being challenged by new application requirements, particularly related to new electric vehicle functions and powertrain electrification.

Part 1. Overview

1. Development trends for future automobiles and their demand on the battery

1.1. Lead–acid batteries in automobiles: still good enough?
1.2. Requirements in the automotive industry
1.3. Vehicle level requirements
1.4. Low-volt system topology options for advanced power supply and mild powertrain hybridization
1.5. Upcoming storage system requirements
1.6. Discussion
List of abbreviations

2. Overview of batteries for future automobiles

2.1. General requirements for batteries in electric vehicles
2.2. Energy storage in lead–acid batteries
2.3. Alkaline batteries
2.4. High-temperature sodium batteries
2.5. Lithium-ion batteries
2.6. Power sources after Lithium-ion
2.7. Supercapacitors
2.8. Fuel cells

3. Lead–acid battery fundamentals

3.1. Principles of operation
3.2. Open-circuit voltage
3.3. Voltage during discharge and charge
3.4. Designs and manufacture
3.5. Charging
3.6. Heat management in lead–acid batteries
3.7. Failure modes and remedies
3.8. Capacity
3.9. Self-discharge
3.10. Dynamic charge-acceptance
3.11. Summing up
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

4. Current research topics for lead–acid batteries

4.1. Design and materials
4.2. Operating strategy
4.3. Battery monitoring
4.4. Dual battery systems
4.5. Discussion

Part 2. Battery Technology

5. Flooded starting-lighting-ignition (SLI) and enhanced flooded batteries (EFBs): State-of-the-art

5.1. History of lead–acid batteries in combustion engine cars
5.2. Board net architecture and car requirements on batteries
5.3. Flooded automotive battery design and production technologies: status and latest improvements
5.4. Market trends
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

6. Automotive absorptive glass-mat lead–acid batteries: State of the art

6.1. Lead–acid batteries in vehicle electrical systems
6.2. Global standardization of automotive AGM batteries
6.3. Vehicle systems: voltages and battery technologies
6.4. Launch of automotive AGM batteries
6.5. Start–stop: factor of success for AGM batteries
6.6. Advantages of AGM over flooded automotive batteries
6.7. Cycling endurance of AGM batteries
6.8. Capability for dynamic charge-acceptance
6.9. Packaging in vehicles: heat-resilience of AGM batteries
6.10. Future applications for AGM batteries
6.11. Replacement of spent AGM batteries
6.12. Summary: automotive AGM batteries
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

7. Performance-enhancing materials for lead–acid battery negative plates

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Expanders
7.3. Structural influences
7.4. Challenge of high-rate partial state-of-charge duty
7.5. Addition of carbon
7.6. Types of battery configuration
7.7. Understanding the carbon effect
7.8. Best choice of carbon
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

8. Positive active-materials for lead–acid battery plates

8.1. Introduction
8.2. Operating principles
8.3. Positive plate construction
8.4. Manufacturing process
8.5. Failure modes and remedies
8.6. Future developments
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

9. Current-collectors for lead–acid batteries

9.1. Introduction
9.2. Reactions at the surface of the positive grid
9.3. Antimony-free grids
9.4. Lead–calcium alloys
9.5. Tin additions to pure lead
9.6. Tin additions to lead–calcium alloys
9.7. Bookmould-cast lead–calcium–tin grids
9.8. Rolled lead–calcium–tin grids
9.9. Corrosion of lead–calcium–tin alloy grids
9.10. Grids for elevated temperatures
9.11. Spiral-wound grids
9.12. Novel grids designs
9.13. Composite grids
9.14. Thin grids
9.15. Straps and posts
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

10. Alternative current-collectors

10.1. Introduction
10.2. Function, design and characteristic parameters of lead–acid battery current-collectors
10.3. Metallized injection moulded plastic grids
10.4. Copper and aluminium grids
10.5. Titanium current-collectors
10.6. Alternative current-collectors based on fibrous materials
10.7. Foam grids
10.8. Carbon honeycomb grids
10.9. Conclusion
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

11. Cell design for high-rate operation

11.1. The reason why we need high-rate operation and why it is so critical and challenging
11.2. Fundamental theoretical considerations about high-rate operation
11.3. Key parameters for high-rate plate design
11.4. Alternative plate and cell designs for high-rate operation
11.5. Additional plate and cell design parameters and their impact
11.6. Outlook for the lead–acid design for further advanced high-rate applications
List of abbreviations

12. Towards sustainable road transport with the UltraBattery™

12.1. Most promising and affordable designs of hybrid electric vehicle
12.2. Failure mechanism of lead–acid batteries under high-rate partial state-of-charge duty
12.3. Improving the cycleability of lead–acid batteries under high-rate partial state-of-charge duty
12.4. The UltraBattery™
12.5. The UltraBattery™ tomorrow: challenges and prospects
12.6. Concluding remarks
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

Part 3. Application Technology

13. Lead–acid battery operation in micro-hybrid and electrified vehicles

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Storage system requirements and operating strategies
13.3. Charging strategies
13.4. Lead–acid batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles

14. Monitoring techniques for 12-V lead–acid batteries in automobiles

14.1. Historic overview towards battery sensors
14.2. Requirements of battery sensors
14.3. Lead–acid battery monitoring functions
14.4. Algorithms for battery state detection of lead–acid batteries
14.5. Validation of battery state detection output signals
14.6. Field experience
14.7. Outlook on future development

15. Dual battery systems for 12-V automotive power supply

15.1. Outline
15.2. Drivers for dual storage
15.3. Requirements for a dual storage power-supply system
15.4. Potential topologies
15.5. Integration of the auxiliary battery into the vehicle and its electrical system
15.6. Market trends

16. Basics of lead–acid battery modelling and simulation

16.1. Introduction
16.2. Levels of battery modelling
16.3. Specific challenges for modelling lead–acid batteries
16.4. Models for electrical performance
16.5. Models for battery ageing
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

17. Batteries for heavy trucks

17.1. Introduction
17.2. Dimensions
17.3. Key requirements
17.4. Electrical network voltage for heavy trucks
17.5. Truck battery design considerations
17.6. Advanced truck battery technologies
17.7. Advanced system integration of truck batteries
17.8. Summary
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

18. Lead–acid batteries for E-bicycles and E-scooters

18.1. Introduction
18.2. Description of electric two wheelers
18.3. Market
18.4. Characteristics of electric two wheelers
18.5. Battery
18.6. Summary
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

Part 4. Product Life Cycle

19. Standards and tests for lead–acid batteries in automotive applications

19.1. Standardization organizations and different levels of standardization
19.2. Obligations of standards and different kind of standards
19.3. Standardization in different regions and list of applicable standards for lead–acid batteries in automotive applications
19.4. Procedure to publish a new standard
19.5. Battery sizes in comparison and trends
19.6. Comparison of typical lead–acid battery requirements and test procedures
19.7. External standards in comparison to original equipment specifications

20. Recycling concepts for lead–acid batteries

20.1. Introduction
20.2. The process
20.3. Removal of sulfur
20.4. Battery breaking
20.5. Lead smelting
20.6. Lead refining
20.7. Electrochemical practice
20.8. Recent developments
20.9. Conclusion
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

Part 5. Outlook

21. Lead–acid batteries for future automobiles: Status and prospects

21.1. Tomorrow's automobile batteries: drivers for change
21.2. Electrified vehicles and the demands placed on their batteries
21.3. Restrictions on the use of lead
21.4. Can lead–acid battery technology keep pace with increasing electrification of vehicles?
21.5. Closing remarks
Abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms

Jürgen Garche

Jürgen Garche, graduated in chemistry at the Dresden University of Technology (DTU) in Germany in 1967. He was awarded his PhD in theoretical electrochemistry in 1970 and his habilitation in applied electrochemistry in 1980 from the same university. He worked at the DTU in the Electrochemical Power Sources Group for many years in different projects, mainly related to conventional batteries, before he moved 1991 to the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) in Ulm, where he was, until 2004, the Head of the Electrochemical Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division.

He was Professor of Electrochemistry at Ulm University and Guest Professor at Shandong University – China, 2005, Sapienca University Roma - Italy, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2023, TUM-CREATE – Singapore, 2014, 2015, 2016- 2016, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics - China, 2016, CNR Institute for Advanced Energy Technologies, Messina - Italy, 2019. After he retired from the ZSW he founded in 2004 the consulting firm Fuel Cell and Battery Consulting (FCBAT). Since 2015 he is senior professor at Ulm University. He has published more than 300 papers, 10 patents, and 11 books, among others as editor-in-chief of the first edition of Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources. He is listed in “World’s most Influential Scientific Minds” by Thomas Reuters (2014) and in the book “Profiles of 93 Influential Electrochemists” (2015).

Affiliations and expertise

Senior Professor, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany

Eckhard Karden

Eckhard received his diploma in Physics 1995 and his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering 2001 from RWTH Aachen University of Technology with projects on CAE modeling and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of lead-acid batteries. Having spent two and a half year as senior engineer at ISEA Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives of the same university, he joined Ford Motor Company in the newly established Research and Innovation Centre (RIC) Aachen. He has been focusing on batteries for low-voltage power supply, micro, and mild hybrid applications. As a Technical Specialist, he is working closely with Ford’s global engineering centres and has been involved in the conceptual work, specifications, and component verification plans for the enhanced flooded batteries, battery sensors, and charging strategies that went into Ford’s first generations of micro-hybrid vehicles. He is an active member of German, European, and international standardization working groups for stop/start and micro-hybrid batteries.

Affiliations and expertise

Ford Motor Company, Research and Innovation Centre (RIC), Aachen, Germany

Patrick T. Moseley

Pat was awarded a Ph. D. for crystal structure analysis in 1968 by the University of Durham, U.K., and a D. Sc. for research publications in materials science, by the same university, in 1994. He worked for 23 years at the Harwell Laboratory of the U.K. Atomic Energy Authority where he brought a background of crystal structure and materials chemistry to the study of lead-acid and other varieties of battery, thus supplementing the traditional electrochemical emphasis of the subject.

From1995 he was Manager of Electrochemistry at the International Lead Zinc Research Organization in North Carolina and Program Manager of the Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium. In 2005 he also became President of the Consortium.

Dr. Moseley was one of the editors of the Journal of Power Sources for 25 years from 1989 to 2014. In 2008 he was awarded the Gaston Planté medal by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.

Affiliations and expertise

International Lead Zinc Research Organization Inc., Durham, North Carolina, USA

David A. J. Rand

Dr David Rand AM PhD ScD FTSE was educated at the University of Cambridge where he conducted research on fuel cells. In 1969, he joined the Australian Government’s CSIRO laboratories in Melbourne. After further exploration of fuel cell mechanisms and then electrochemical studies of mineral beneficiation, David formed the CSIRO Novel Battery Technologies Group in the late 1970s and remained its leader until 2003. He was one of the six scientists who established the Advanced Lead–Acid Battery Consortium in 1992 and served as its Manager in 1994. As a Chief Research Scientist, David fulfilled the role of CSIRO’s scientific advisor on hydrogen and renewable energy until his retirement in 2008. He remains active within the organisation as an Honorary Research Fellow, and has served as the Chief Energy Scientist of the World Solar Challenge since its inception in 1987. David was awarded the Faraday Medal by the Royal Society of Chemistry (UK) in 1991 and the UNESCO Gaston Planté Medal by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in 1996. He was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 1998, and became a Member of the Order of Australia in 2013 for service to science and technological development in the field of energy storage.

Affiliations and expertise

CSIRO Energy Flagship, Clayton, Australia

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Jürgen Garche

Eckhard Karden

Patrick T. Moseley

David A. J. Rand

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