Introduction to Chemistry

PrefaceIntroduction 1.1 General and Historical 1.2 Definitions of Some Chemical Terms 1.3 The Purity of Compounds 1.4 Chemical Symbols, Formulas, and Equations2 Electronic Structures of Atoms 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Quantization of Electricity 2.3 The Positive Ions (Positive Rays) 2.4 The Rutherford-Bohr Nuclear Theory of the Atom 2.5 The Nature of Light 2.6 Spectra of Elements 2.7 Quantization of the Energy of an Electron Associated with a Nucleus 2.8 Modification of the Bohr Theory 2.9 The Electron—How Shall We Think About It? 2.10 The Distribution of Electrons in Quantum Levels 2.11 The Energies of the Quantum Levels 2.12 Electron Spin 2.13 Aufbau 2.14 What Do The Quantum Numbers Represent? 2.15 Representations of the Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 2.16 Paramagnetism3 Chemical Periodicity 3.1 Formulas and Valence 3.2 Nomenclature 3.3 Chemical Periodicity before Mendeleev 3.4 Mendeleev; Meyer 3.5 The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table. Types of Elements 3.6 The Periodicity of Chemical Properties 3.7 Atomic Structure and Periodic Properties of Atoms4 Atomic and Molecular Weights. The Mole 4.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 4.2 The Law of Definite Proportions 4.3 The Atomic Theory 4.4 The Law of Combining Volumes; The Avogadro Hypothesis 4.5 Approximate Molecular Weights of Gases. The Mole 4.6 Atomic Weights from Molecular Weights; The Cannizzaro Method 4.7 Molecular Formulas 4.8 Empirical Formulas; Ionic Solids 4.9 Mass Spectroscopy; Isotopes; Accurate Atomic Weights5 Stoichiometry—The Arithmetic of Chemistry 5.1 Chemical Equations 5.2 Quantitative information from Chemical Equations 5.3 Conversion and Selectivity (Yield)6 The First Law of Thermodynamics; Thermochemistry 6.1 Conservation of Energy 6.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 6.3 Thermochemistry 6.4 Hess’s Law 6.5 Bond Dissociation Energy 6.6 The Interconvertibility of Matter and Energy7 Types of Chemical Bonds 7.1 Introduction 7.2 What Type of Attractive Forces Hold Atoms Together in Chemical Bonds? 7.3 Lewis Symbols 7.4 The Ionic Bond 7.5 The Covalent Bond 7.6 The Multiple Bonds 7.7 Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds 7.8 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 7.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 7.10 Formal Charge and Oxidation Number 7.11 Periodicity of Chemical Bonding8 The Covalent Bond 8.1 The Molecular Orbital 8.2 Sigma (σ) Bonds and P1 (π) Bonds 8.3 Binary Covalent Molecules and Ions 8.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 8.5 Multiply Bonded Molecules 8.6 Hybrid Orbital Number 8.7 Relative Energy Levels of the s-p Type of Hybrid Orbital 8.8 Resonance and Delocalized p Electrons9 The Shapes and Symmetry of Molecules 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Hybridization of Orbitals of Atoms with more than an Octet of Valence Electrons 9.3 Principal Factors Determining Molecular Shape 9.4 Principal Effect of a Lone Pair of Electrons 9.5 Molecules whose Central Atoms use Unhybridized p Orbitals 9.6 Shapes of Multiple-Bonded Molecules 9.7 Molecular Symmetry 9.8 Molecular Dissymmetry10 Intermolecular Forces 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Dipole-Dipole Interaction 10.3 Ion-Dipole Attractions 10.4 Hydrogen Bonding 10.5 London Forces 10.6 London Forces and Molecular Shape11 Gases 11.1 The States of Aggregation of Molecules in Matter 11.2 The Properties of Gases 11.3 Boyle’s Law 11.4 The Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac; Absolute Temperature 11.5 Avogadro’s Law 11.6 The Gas Law; The Mole; Gas Densities 11.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 11.8 The Pressure of a Gas Confined by a Liquid 11.9 Gas Volume Corrections in Stoichiometry 11.10 Ideal Gases. The Kinetic Molecular Hypothesis 11.11 Deviations from Ideal Behavior12 Aggregated States of Matter 12.1 Crystalline Solids; Methods of investigation 12.2 The Space Lattice; The Unit Cell 12.3 The Tetrahedron; The Octahedron 12.4 Liquids; Glasses 12.5 Changes of State 12.6 Spontaneous Change; Entropy 12.7 Liquid-Gas Interconversion; Vapor Pressure 12.8 Critical Constants 12.9 Boiling, Melting, and Freezing Points 12.10 Colloids; Adsorbents13 Solutions 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Liquid Solutions 13.3 Saturation: Gases in Liquids 13.4 Saturation: Solids in Liquids or Liquids in Liquids 13.5 Dependence of Solubility on Temperature 13.6 Supersaturation 13.7 Solubility and Molecular Structure 13.8 Detergency 13.9 Solid Solutions 13.10 Measures of Composition for Solutions 13.11 Vapor Pressures of Solutions; Raoult’s Law 13.12 Vapor Pressure Depression 13.13 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 13.14 Determination of Molecular Weights14 Chemical Equilibrium 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Equilibrium in Gases; The Equilibrium Constant 14.3 Change of K with Form of Equation 14.4 Combination of Equilibria 14.5 Principle of Le Chatelier 14.6 Heterogeneous Equilibrium 14.7 Equilibrium in Solutions 14.8 Equilibrium Calculations15 Ionic Solutions 15.1 Electrical Conductance 15.2 Colligative Properties of Solutions of Electrolytes 15.3 Ionic Conduction 15.4 Solvation of Ions 15.5 Covalent Electrolytes 15.6 Net Ionic Equations 15.7 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations by the Ion-Electron Method 15.8 Electrode Processes 15.9 Electrolysis of Fused Salts 15.10 Faraday’s Laws 15.11 Strong Electrolytes 15.12 Conductances of individual Ions 15.13 Weak Electrolytes 15.14 Degree of Dissociation16 Galvanic Cells and the Driving Force of Chemical Reactions 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Electricity from a Chemical Reaction 16.3 A Galvanic Cell with One Solution 16.4 Electrical Work; Electromotive Force 16.5 Measurement of Electromotive Force 16.6 Free Energy and Entropy 16.7 Salt Bridges; Conventional Notation for Cells 16.8 The Effect of Concentration on EMF; Nernst Equation 16.9 Half-Cell Potentials; The Hydrogen Half-Cell 16.10 EMF, K, and ∆g 16.11 Predicting the Direction of a Reaction 16.12 Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 16.13 Some Practical Cells 16.14 Corrosion17 Acids and Bases 17.1 Early Definitions 17.2 Brönsted-Lowry Concept of Acid-Base Reactions 17.3 Amproterism; Autoprotolysis (Self-Ionization) 17.4 Types of Protolytic Reaction 17.5 Lewis Acid-Base Concept 17.6 Some Examples of Lewis Acids 17.7 Industrial Applications of Acid-Base Reactions 17.8 Preparation of Acids18 Calculations of Ionic Equilibrium 18.1 The Ionization of Water 18.2 pH and pOH 18.3 Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions 18.4 Ionization of Weak Acids 18.5 Ionization of Weak Bases 18.6 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 18.7 Polyprotic Acids 18.8 Weak Acid (or Base) in the Presence of Strong Acid (or Base) 18.9 Buffer Solutions 18.10 Indicators and Titration 18.11 Solubility Product 18.12 Effect of ph on Solubility 18.13 Complex Ions19 Chemical Kinetics 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Conditions Affecting Reaction Rates 19.3 Theory of Reaction Rates 19.4 Mechanism of Reaction from Rate Equation 19.5 Chain Mechanism20 The Chemistry of the Representative Elements 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Allotropy and Periodicity 20.3 Reactivity of Hydrides 20.4 The Periodicity of Properties of the Oxides 20.5 Structure of Oxyanions 20.6 The Chemistry of Some Common Oxides and Oxyanions 20.7 Peroxides 20.8 Periodicity of Properties of the Halides; Differences in Oxidation States 20.9 Properties of Sulfides 20.10 Compounds of Noble Gases21 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements 21.1 Definition; Groups and Triads 21.2 Metallic Behavior 21.3 Oxidation States and Bonding 21.4 Color 21.5 Interstitial Compounds 21.6 Oxides and Oxyions 21.7 Complex Formation 21.8 Coordination Number or Ligancy 21.9 Werner’s Coordination Theory 21.10 Coordination Number and Shape 21.11 Bonding in Transition Metal Complexes 21.12 Crystal Field Theory 21.13 Carbonyl Complexes 21.14 Geometrical Isomerism 21.15 Stability of Complex Tons22 Organic Chemistry 22.1 What Is Organic Chemistry? 22.2 The Bonding of Carbon 22.3 Alkane Hydrocarbons; Isomerism and Homology 22.4 The Shapes of Alkane Molecules. Conformation 22.5 Chemical Properties of the Alkanes 22.6 Alkenes and Alkynes; Unsaturated Hydrocarbons; Geometrical Isomerism 22.7 Cycloalkanes 22.8 Dienes; Benzene and Aromatic Compounds 22.9 Functional Group Derivatives 22.10 Reactions of Covalent Bonds 22.11 Decomposition 22.12 Displacement or Substitution Reactions 22.13 Rearrangements23 Metals and Metallurgy 23.1 The Properties of Metals 23.2 The Metallic Bond; The Band Theory of Metals 23.3 Metallic Properties in Terms of the Band Theory 23.4 Insulators and Semiconductors 23.5 Sources of Metals 23.6 The Winning of Metals from Ores: General Considerations 23.7 Preliminary Physical Treatment 23.8 Physical Concentration 23.9 Chemical Leaching 23.10 Roasting 23.11 Reduction 23.12 Electrometallurgy 23.13 Refining; Electrolytic Methods 23.14 Refining; Nonelectrolytic Methods24 Nuclear Chemistry 24.1 Radioactivity 24.2 Nuclear Energy 24.3 The Stability of Nuclei 24.4 Nuclear Reactions 24.5 Rate of Radioactive Decay Processes; Half-Life 24.6 Radiochemistry25 Polymers 25.1 Background and Definitions 25.2 The Decomposition of Natural High Polymers; Monomeric Units (MERS) 25.3 The Production of Synthetic High Polymers; C-Polymerization 25.4 A-Polymerization 25.5 The Orientation of Monomeric Units in Macromolecules 25.6 Crystallinity of Polymers 25.7 Ionic Polymers 25.8 Properties of Polymers26 Biochemistry 26.1 Introduction 26.2 The Hole of the Cell 26.3 Biochemicals 26.4 Biochemical Processes in the Cell 26.5 EpilogueAppendix 1: Definitions and Review of Physical ConceptsAppendix 2: Review of Some Mathematical OperationsAppendix 3: NomenclatureAppendix 4: Fundamental ConstantsAppendix 5: Vapor Pressure of WaterAppendix 6: AbbreviationsAppendix 7: Logarithms—Natural and CommonIndex