Introduction to Carbon Science

ForewordAcknowledgmentsAn Introduction to AuthorsChapter 1 Structure in Carbons and Carbon Forms Summary 1 Introduction - Setting the Scene 1.1 The Element Carbon 1.2 Bonding in Carbon Materials 1.3 Diamond and Graphite - Perfect Structure 2 Order/Disorder 2.1 More-ordered Structures 2.2 Less-ordered Structures 2.3 Range of Order 3 Carbon Forms 3.1 Graphitic Carbons (Natural and Synthetic Graphites) 3.2 Non-graphitic Carbons and Graphitization 3.3 Graphitizable and Non-graphitizable Carbons 3.4 Pitches 3.5 Cokes 3.6 Coals 3.7 Carbon Fibers 3.8 Other Carbon Materials 4 Composites 4.1 Graphitic Composites 4.2 Carbon Electrodes 4.3 Carbon/Carbon Composites 5 Methods of Studying Carbon Structure 5.1 Optical Microscopy 5.2 Electron Microscopy (SEM and TEM) 5.3 X-ray Diffraction 5.4 Raman Spectroscopy 5.5 Surface Techniques 6 Factors in Carbon Structures 7 Conclusions 7.1 The Diversity of Carbon ReferencesChapter 2 Mechanisms of Formation of Isotropic and Anisotropic Carbons Summary 1 Introduction 2 Isotropic Carbon 3 Graphitizable Carbon - The Problem 3.1 Background 3.2 Mesophase: Early Recognition 3.3 Nematic Liquid Crystals 3.4 Structure in Liquid Crystals 3.5 Nucleation of Mesophase 3.6 Structure within Mesophase 4 Chemistry and Viscosity of Pyrolysis Systems 4.1 Growth and Properties of Mesophase: Summary 4.2 Aspects of Mesophase Chemistry 4.3 Mesophase Growth and Coalescence 4.4 Carbons/Cokes from Mesophase from Pitch 5 Mesophase from Coal 5.1 Metallurgical Coke 5.2 Coal Chemistry 5.3 Mesophase Formation during Coal Pyrolysis ReferencesChapter 3 Physical Properties of Pitch Relevant to the Fabrication of Carbon Materials Summary 1 Introduction 2 Origins and Composition of Pitch 2.1 Coal-tar Pitch 2.2 Petroleum Pitch 2.3 Solubility as a Characterization Technique 2.4 Chemical Characteristics 2.5 Mesogenic Character of Pitch 3 Structure of Pitch 3.1 Pitch as a Glassy Solid 3.2 Pitch as a Colloidal System 3.3 Paniculate Inclusions 4 Rheological Properties of Pitch 4.1 Newtonian and non-Newtonian Flow 4.2 Effect of Temperature on the Viscosity Coefficient 4.3 Measurement of the Glass Transition Temperature 4.4 Factors Determining the Glass Transition Temperature and other Reference Temperatures 4.5 Effect of Particulate Matter on Rheology 4.6 Mesophase Rheology 5 Pyrolysis of Pitch 5.1 Transformation Diagrams 5.2 Uses of the Transformation Diagram 5.3 Experimental Diagram 6 Pitch as a Binder and Matrix Material in Engineering Materials 6.1 Effect on Porosity 6.2 Surface Activity of Pitch 7 Electrical Conductivity ReferencesChapter 4 Kinetics and Catalysis of Carbon Gasification Summary 1 Introduction 2 The Nature of Carbon Surfaces 3 Reactivity of Carbon 3.1 Selective Gasification 4 Reaction Kinetics and Mechanisms 4.1 Chemical and Diffusion Control of Rate 4.2 Reaction Rates 4.3 Chemisorption and Desorption 4.4 Importance of Active Surface Area (ASA) to Reactivity 4.5 Concept of Reactivity 5 The Carbon-Molecular Oxygen Reaction 6 The Carbon-Carbon Dioxide Reaction 7 The Carbon-Steam Reaction 8 The Carbon-Oxides of Nitrogen Reaction 9 The Carbon-Hydrogen Reaction 10 Comparison of Carbon Gasification Reactions 11 Catalysis of Oxidation Reactions 11.1 Effects of Catalysts on Reaction Kinetics 11.2 Mechanisms of Catalysis 11.3 Understanding of Catalysis by Oxygen-transfer Reactions 11.4 Topography of Catalytic Gasification 12 Inhibition of the Gas-Carbon Reaction ReferencesChapter 5 Porosity in Carbons and Graphites Summary 1 Introduction 1.1 Classifications of Porosity 1.2 Some Examples of Porosity in Carbons and Graphites 2 Effects of Porosity on Properties of Carbons 3 Densities of Carbons 4 Surface Areas from Gas Adsorption 4.1 Experimental Methods 4.2 The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Theory 4.3 Fractal Surfaces of Carbons 5 Surface Areas from Small Angle X-ray Scattering 5.1 The Debye Equation 5.2 The Porod Law 5.3 The Guinier Equation 6 Microporous Carbons 6.1 Adsorption in Microporous Carbons 6.2 Calculations of Adsorption Potentials 6.3 Application of the BET Equation to Microporous Carbons 6.4 The Dubinin-Radushkevich (DR) Equation 6.5 Estimations of the Dimensions of Micropores 7 Mesoporous Carbons 7.1 The Kelvin Equation 7.2 Limitations of the Kelvin Equation 8 Macroporous Carbons 8.1 Mercury Porosimetry 8.2 Fluid Transport in Pores 8.3 Image Analysis ReferencesChapter 6 Carbon Fibers: Manufacture, Properties, Structure and Applications Summary 1 Introduction 1.1 History 1.2 General Properties 2 Preparation 2.1 Carbon Fibers from PAN 2.2 Carbon Fibers from Mesophase Pitch 3 Tensile Properties 3.1 Tensile Modulus 3.2 Tensile Strength 3.3 Practical Properties of Carbon Fibers 4 Structure 4.1 Wide-angle X-ray Diffraction 4.2 Small-angle X-ray Diffraction 4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 4.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 4.5 Micro-structure 5 Fracture Mechanisms 5.1 Tensile Failure 5.2 Flexural Failure 5.3 Compressive Strength 6 Applications 6.1 Composite Properties 6.2 Aerospace Uses 6.3 Non-aerospace Uses 6.4 Future Trends ReferencesChapter 7 Mechanical Properties of Cokes and Composites Summary 1 Introduction 2 Nature of Cokes and Composites 2.1 Types of Cokes 2.2 Influence of Production Conditions on Coke Properties 2.3 Types of Composites 3 Mechanical Properties 3.1 Deformation and Elastic Properties 3.2 Failure 3.3 Brittle Fracture 3.4 Fatigue 3.5 Abrasion and Wear 3.6 Effects of Temperature 3.7 Effects of rate of loading 4 Test Procedures 5 Composite Materials 6 Theoretical Considerations 6.1 The Griffith Concept 6.2 Interfacial Aspects 6.3 Statistical Aspects 7 Structural Considerations 7.1 Influence of Porosity in Cokes 7.2 Carbon Texture in Cokes 7.3 Micro-structure and Fracture in Cokes and Composites 7.4 Fractography 8 Conclusions ReferencesChapter 8 The Nature of Coal Material Summary 1 Introduction 2 Occurrence of Coal 2.1 Distribution 2.2 Coal Seam Properties 3 Bulk Properties and Chemical Structure 3.1 Chemistry 3.2 Thermal and Fluid Properties 3.3 Coking Properties 3.4 Chemical Structure 4 Coal Composition 4.1 The Maceral Concept 4.2 Vitrinite Macerals 4.3 Liptinite Macerals 4.4 Inertinite Macerals 5 Coal Rank 5.1 Coalification 5.2 Commercial Classifications by Rank 6 Problems Peculiar to Coal as a Material 6.1 Sampling 6.2 Mineral Matter 6.3 Weathering ReferencesChapter 9 Coal to Coke Transformation Summary 1 Introduction 1.1 History of Coke Making 1.2 The by-product Battery 1.3 By-products from Coking 2 Theories of Carbonization 2.1 Solvent Extraction Theory 2.2 Transient Fusion Theory 2.3 Precursors of the Metaplast Theory 2.4 Metaplast Theory 2.5 Liquid Crystal Theory 2.6 Liquefaction Theory 3 Origin of Coal 4 Coal Classification 5 Coking in a Single Coal Particle 5.1 Coke Cenosphere 5.2 Mesophase Concept 5.3 Role of Plastic Layer in Coking 5.4 Thermal Transformation of Coal Macerals(Anthrathermotics) 6 Rheological Properties of Coal 7 Coal Petrography 8 Coke Strength Prediction 9 Coke Petrography 10 Coke Pore and Wall Structure 11 Coal Blends for Coke Making and Blast Furnace Coke Properties 11.1 Coal Blend 11.2 Carbonization Variables 11.3 Coke Strength Determinations 11.4 Coking Pressure 12 Coke in the Blast Furnace 12.1 Coke Reactivity 12.2 Petrographic Strength Predictions for Foundry Coke 12.3 Formed Coke 12.4 Pre-heating 12.5 Co-carbonization References