Infection and Autoimmunity

3rd Edition - December 23, 2023
Editors: Naim Mahroum, Abdulla Watad, Yehuda Shoenfeld
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 1 3 0 - 8
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 1 3 1 - 5

In 2020 we lost Noel Rose, co-editor of the classic Infection and Autoimmunity. To honor and respect his work, a group of experts in the field have taken the initiative to make th… Read more

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In 2020 we lost Noel Rose, co-editor of the classic Infection and Autoimmunity. To honor and respect his work, a group of experts in the field have taken the initiative to make this book perpetual.

The third edition of Infection and Autoimmunity updates all the recent and leading papers on infection and autoimmunity, in addition to a dedicated section on to the correlation between SARS-CoV-2 infection and autoimmunity. From the very beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous papers have been published, including studies conducted by the editors and authors of the book, on COVID-19 and autoimmunity, and therefore this knowledge has been incorporated into this new edition. The addition and extended coverage on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 and autoimmunity are pivotal for the third edition of the book due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Medical students and practitioners, as well as academic staff in medical schools globally, are enthusiastic in searching for better understanding of the correlation between infection and autoimmunity in general, and the long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 on the immunce system in particular, especially in terms of autoimmunity related to the virus.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
Chapter 1 Infection and Autoimmunity – An Introductory Note
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Autoimmunity Versus Autoimmune Disease
3 An Animal Model-Based Theory
4 The Example of COVID-19
5 The Example of Acute Rheumatic Fever
6 The Example of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
7 Conclusion
References
Part 1: Mechanisms in Infections and Autoimmunity
Chapter 2 Molecular Mimicry and Autoimmunity in a Glance
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Common Infectious Agents and Their Role in Setting Autoimmune Disorders
3 Vice Versa – Autoimmune Diseases and Implicated Pathogens
4 Rheumatic Autoimmune Diseases
References
Chapter 3 Perspectives on Molecular Mimicry Between Human, SARS-CoV-2, and Plasmodium Species Through a Probabilistic and Evolutionary Insight
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Identification of Similar or the Same Human and SARS-CoV-2 Peptide Sequence Pairs
3 HLA Binding Strength Predictions
4 Discussion Through a Probabilistic and Evolutionary Insight
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Molecular Mimicry Study Between Peptides of SARS-CoV-2 and Neutrophil Extracellular Traps-Related Proteins
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Epitope Spreading in Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
2 Examples of Epitope Spreading in Autoimmune Diseases
3 Mechanisms Underlying Epitope Spreading During the Course of an Autoimmune Disease
4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 6 Infections and B1 Cells
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Characteristics of B1 Cells
3 CD5 Molecule
4 B1 Cells and Disease
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae Antibodies and Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
1 Crohn’s Disease
2 Behcet’s Disease
3 Celiac Disease
4 Ankylosing Spondylitis
5 Autoimmune Liver Diseases
6 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Anti-phospholipid Syndrome
7 Other Autoimmune Diseases
References
Chapter 8 Lymphocytes and Infection in Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Lymphocytes and Their Subsets in Autoimmune Diseases
3 Lymphocyte Subsets and Infection in Autoimmune Diseases
4 Causes of Lymphopenia in Autoimmune Diseases
5 Preventing Infection in Lymphopenic Autoimmune Patients
References
Chapter 9 Infections and Endothelial Cell Autoreactivity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Methodological Approaches and Pitfalls in AECA Detection
3 AECA and Infections
4 Pathogenic Effects of AECA: Lessons From Autoimmune Diseases
5 The Targets of AECA in Infectious Diseases
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10 Infection and Inflammation: A Double-Edged Sword
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 COVID-19
3 Shigellosis
4 Host Inflammatory Response as an Aid in Diagnosis
References
Chapter 11 Infection, Autoimmunity, and Vitamin D
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Vitamin D and Immunity
3 Infection and Vitamin D
4 Vitamin D and Autoimmunity
5 Vitamin D and Autoimmune Diseases
6 Optimal Levels of 25(OH)D3
7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12 Seasonality and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Seasonality and Immune System
3 Seasonality, Infections, and Autoimmunity
4 Vitamin D, Sun Exposure, and Autoimmunity
5 Melatonin, Seasonality, and Immune System
6 Seasonality in Autoimmune Diseases – Infectious Agents, Vitamin D, and Melatonin
7 Conclusion
Further Reading
Part 2: Viruses and Autoimmunity
Chapter 13 Autoimmunity on the Rise: COVID-19 as a Trigger of Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 The Mosaic of Autoimmunity
2 Environmental Factors Contributing to Autoimmunity
3 COVID-19 as an Environmental Factor Contributing to Autoimmunity
4 Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: A Possible Autoimmune Phenomenon
5 Genetic Predisposition Contributing to Autoimmunity
6 Hormones Contributing to Autoimmunity
7 Autoimmunity on the Rise: Opinion
References
Chapter 14 Coronavirus-Triggered Ocular Autoimmune Reactivity: Experimental Coronavirus Retinopathy
Abstract
1 Introduction: Infections and Autoimmunity in the Retina
2 Background: Ocular Autoimmunity
3 History: Coronaviruses
4 Autoimmunity and Coronavirus Infections
5 Development: ECOR
6 Summary
References
Chapter 15 Viral Infections and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus – Guilty Viruses in the Court of Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Coxsackievirus B and T1D – A Popular Offender
3 Rubella and T1D – An Early Cause
4 EBV and T1D – The Offender
5 SARS-CoV-2 and T1D – A New Suspect
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 The Role of Viruses and Viral-Like Sequences in Sjogren’s Syndrome
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Clinical Picture
3 Immunopathology [16]
4 Viruses and SS
5 Activation of Type I Interferon Pathway in SS – Role of Long Interspersed Nuclear Element-1 Retrotransposable Elements
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17 Hepatitis C and Mixed Cryoglobulinemia: An Update
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Etiopathogenesis
3 Clinical and Laboratory Features
4 Classification Criteria
5 Therapeutic Approaches
References
Chapter 18 Vasculitides and Hepatitis C Infection
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 HCV-Associated CV
3 HCV-Associated Medium-Sized Vasculitis
References
Chapter 19 HIV and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Autoimmune Diseases in HIV Infection
3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20 Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 and Autoimmunity
Abstract
Conflict of interest
1 HTLV, the Immune System, and Autoimmunity
2 HTLV and Arthropathy
3 HTLV and Sjögren’s Syndrome
4 HTLV and Other Rheumatic Diseases
References
Chapter 21 Parvovirus and Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Clinical Manifestations of Parvovirus Infection
3 Parvovirus and Autoimmunity
4 Possible Mechanisms Behind the Immune Response Evoked by Human Parvovirus B19 Infection
5 Roles of Human Parvovirus B19V Infection in Various Autoimmune Diseases
6 Discussion and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 22 Viral Infections, Myocarditis, and Autoimmune Heart Disease
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 COVID-19 and Myocarditis
3 Evidence of Autoimmunity
4 Animal Models Coxsackievirus B3-Induced Myocarditis
5 Genetic Susceptibility to Myocarditis
6 Disease Progression: From Viral Entry to Heart Failure
7 Conclusion
References
Part 3: Bacteria and Autoimmunity
Chapter 23 Can Antibiotics Cure Autoimmune Diseases?
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Acute Rheumatic Fever and Streptococcus Group A
3 Helicobacter pylori
4 Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis and Staphylococcus aureus
5 Crohn’s Disease and Enteric Infections
6 Reactive Arthritis and Gastrointestinal/Genitourinary Infection
7 Guillain-Barré Syndrome and Campylobacter Infection
8 Rheumatoid Arthritis and Proteus mirabilis
9 Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura and Dapsone
10 Discussion
References
Chapter 24 Rheumatic Fever: How Streptococcal Throat Infection Triggers an Autoimmune Disease
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Streptococcus pyogenes
3 Genetic Markers
4 Pathogenesis
5 Animal Model
6 Rheumatic Fever/Rheumatic Heart Disease and COVID-19 Infection
7 Conclusions
8 Perspective of Vaccine Development
References
Chapter 25 Streptococcus pneumoniae and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Streptococcal family
2 Streptococcus pneumoniae
3 Clinical Manifestations of S. pneumoniae Infections Related to Autoimmunity
4 S. pneumonia Exacerbates Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
5 Septic Shock Syndrome Caused by S. pneumoniae
6 Pericarditis
7 Autoimmune Diseases Predisposing to S. pneumoniae Infections
8 Pathophysiology and Influential Factors in Autoimmune Diseases and S. pneumoniae
9 The Immunological Pathways Involved in the Immune Response to Pneumococcal Polysaccharides
References
Chapter 26 Helicobacter pylori Infection and Gastric Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology
3 Transmission Routes
4 Chronic Atrophic Gastritis
5 Autoimmune Gastritis
6 Pathogenesis
7 H. pylori and Immune Mechanisms
8 Antibodies and H. pylori
9 Does H. pylori Induce Autoimmune Gastritis?
10 Diagnosis and Management
11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 27 Lyme Disease and Autoimmune Diseases
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Bacterial Infections and Autoimmunity
3 Characteristics of Borrelia burgdorferi Bacteria
4 Lyme Disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Molecular Mimicry
5 Neurological or “Brain” Autoimmunity and Lyme Disease
6 Blood–Brain Barrier Infiltration and Neurological Autoimmunity
7 Microglial Activation and Neurological Autoimmunity
8 Toll-Like Receptors, Lyme Disease, and Autoimmunity
9 Lyme Disease, Co-Infections, and Autoimmunity
10 HLA Genes and Lyme Disease-Triggered Autoimmunity
11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 28 Mycobacteria and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 The Presence of Mycobacteria in Tissues of Patients With Autoimmunologic Disorders
2 Mycobacteria and the Immune Response
References
Chapter 29 Tuberculosis and Autoimmunity: Well-Coordinated Duo
Abstract
Competing Interests
1 Introduction
2 AI Spectra Found in TB
3 Pathogenesis of AI in TB
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 30 BCG and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Autoimmune-Related Effects of BCG
3 BCG Treatment in Bladder Cancer
4 Complications of BCG
References
Chapter 31 Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis and Human Disease: Bridging Infection and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 MAP and Crohn’s Disease – The Hundred-Year War
3 Detection
4 Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis
5 MAP and Human Exposure
6 Genetic Lessons From Tuberculosis
7 Genetic Lessons From Leprosy
8 Genetic Lessons From Blau Syndrome – CARD15
9 SLC11A1
10 SLC11A1 in Infectious and Autoimmune Disease
11 MAP and Type 1 Diabetes
12 Molecular Mimicry/Heat-Shock Proteins – HSP65
13 MAP and Rheumatoid Arthritis
14 MAP and Multiple Sclerosis
15 MAP and Parkinson’s Disease
16 MAP and Autoimmune Thyroiditis
17 Potential Other MAP-Associated Diseases
18 What’s Next for MAP
References
Chapter 32 Leprosy and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Pathogenesis
3 Acute Reactions
4 Lucio’s Phenomenon
5 Leprosy and Autoantibodies
6 Leprosy and Other Diseases
7 Conclusion
References
Part 4: Parasites and Autoimmunity
Chapter 33 The Protective Role of Helminths in Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 The Protective Role of Helminths in Autoimmune Diseases
3 Helminth Derivative to Treat Autoimmunity
4 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter 34 Parasitic Infection and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Peculiarities of Host Immune Response to Parasite Invasion
2 Molecular Mechanisms of Parasite-Associated Autoimmunity
3 Specific Parasites
4 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 35 Toxoplasma and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 From Animals to Humans Through the Immune System
3 The Evidence of Autoimmunity
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 36 Malaria and Autoimmunity
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 The Mechanisms Behind Malaria and Autoimmunity
3 Reciprocal Protective Effects of Malaria and Autoimmunity
4 Malaria-Induced Autoimmunity
5 Immunomodulatory Effects of Antimalarials
6 Association Between Malaria and COVID-19
References
Part 5: Autoimmune Diseases and Infections
Chapter 37 The Infectious Origin of the Anti-Phospholipid Syndrome
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Autoimmune Diseases and Infections: The Role of Molecular Mimicry
3 Anti-β2GPI Antibodies
4 Infection and Anti-Phospholipid Antibodies
5 The Infectious Origin of Circulating Anti-B2GPI Antibodies
6 Therapeutic Considerations
7 Conclusions
REFERENCES
Chapter 38 Infections and SLE
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Mechanisms for Increased Risk of Infection in Lupus Patients
3 Hospitalizations and Mortality
4 Bacterial Infections
5 Viral Infections
6 Fungal Infections
7 Opportunistic Infections
8 Medications for SLE and the Onset of Infections
9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 39 The Role of Infection in Immune-Mediated Thrombocytopenia
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 The Pathogenesis of ITP
3 ITP and Acute Infections
4 Chronic Infections and ITP
5 Vaccination and ITP
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 40 Rheumatoid Arthritis and Infections: Not Only a Coincidence
Abstract
References
Chapter 41 Post-Infectious Arthritis and Reactive Arthritis
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology
3 Mechanisms Involved – HLA-B27-Associated and HLA-B27-Non-Associated ReA
4 Immune Response to Bacteria
5 Arthritogenic Mechanisms of Viral Infections
6 Clinical Manifestations
7 Treatment Options
8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 42 Infections and Systemic Sclerosis
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Conclusions
References
Chapter 43 Infections and Behçet Disease
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 BD Pathogenesis and Infection
3 Infection as a Trigger of BD Exacerbation
4 Infections in Patients With BD
5 Infectious Complications Due to Immunosuppression in BD
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 44 Infections in the Immune Interplay of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Human Gut Microbiota
3 Immunity and Gut Microbiota
4 Intestinal Microbiota in IBD and Dysbiosis
5 Pathogens Implicated in the Causation or Exacerbation of IBD
6 Infectious Agents Protecting From IBD
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 45 Infections and Celiac Disease
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Extra-Intestinal Manifestations
3 Immune and Autoimmune Diseases Associated With Celiac Disease
4 Pathogenesis of CD
5 Infectious Pathogens Associated With Celiac Disease
6 SARS-CoV-2 and Celiac Disease
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 46 Infection and Autoimmune Liver Diseases
Abstract
1 Primary Biliary Cholangitis
2 Autoimmune Hepatitis
References
Chapter 47 Infection and Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases
Abstract
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
2 Graves' Disease and Infection
3 Autoimmune (Hashimoto’s) Thyroiditis and Infection
4 Mechanisms of Induction of Autoimmunity by Infectious Agents
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 48 Renal Autoimmunity: The Role of Bacterial and Viral Infections – An Extensive Review†
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Renal Autoimmunity Syndromes
3 Bacterial Infections and Renal Autoimmunity
4 Viral Infections and Renal Autoimmunity
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 49 Infection and Guillain–Barre Syndrome – A Lifelong Relation
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology of GBS in Association With the Epidemiology of Autoimmune Diseases
3 Treatment of GBS Based on Autoimmune Mechanisms
4 Infectious Agents and Their Role in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of GBS
5 Pathogenetic Background of the Correlation Between GBS and Infections
6 Pathomechanism of AIDP
References
Chapter 50 Pathophysiology of Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis – Immune and Autoimmune Aspects
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology
3 Immunopathogenesis of ADEM
4 Pathology of ADEM
5 Do ADEM and MS Represent Part of an Immune-Mediated Spectrum of Demyelinating Disorders?
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 51 Oral Infections, SARS-CoV-2 Infection, and Autoimmunity
Abstract
Acknowledgment
1 Introduction
2 Recent Development in Oral Infections and Autoimmunity
3 Revisiting Peptidyl Arginine Deiminases
4 Emerging Anti-Inflammatory Proteins, Potential Autoimmune Treatment Targets?
5 SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Oral Infection
6 COVID-19 and Autoimmunity
7 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 52 Pemphigus and Infection
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Clinical Evidence of an Infectious Agent in Pemphigus
3 Possible Pathogenetic Mechanisms of Infection-Induced Pemphigus
4 Implications for Treatment
5 Conclusions
References
Index

Naim Mahroum

Dr Naim Mahroum specialized in internal medicine, infectious diseases and HIV in Sheba medical center. He worked in Sheba medical center for more than 13 years, one of the top 10 hospitals in the world for a third year consequently according to Newsweek. Moreover, Dr. Mahroum, worked at COVID-19 department more than 9 months during the COVID-19 pandemic, which earned him as an infectious disease specialist. He was a member of the teaching committee in Sackler faculty of medicine at Tel-Aviv university since 2012. Has received a senior lecturer degree at the university due to its scientific, academic and research works. In 2022, Dr. Mahroum joined the teaching committee of the international medical school, at Istanbul Medipol University, Istanbul, Turkey. Published more than 75 scientific papers in infections and its relation to autoimmune and rheumatologic diseases. Dr. Mahroum has presented his works in several national and international conferences.

Affiliations and expertise

International School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, Istanbul, Turkey

Abdulla Watad

Abdulla Watad specialized in internal medicine (Tel-Aviv, Israel) and research in rheumatology and immunology at the Autoimmune Diseases Sheba Medical Center, affiliated with the Sackler Faculty of Medicine in Tel-Aviv University. He is also visiting researcher at the University of Leeds, UK. His works focused on the role of entheseal immune resident cells in the pathogenesis of spondyloarthritis, prevention of psoriatic arthritis, link between cancer and autoimmunity, and the impact of fasting on the immune system. He has published more than 150 papers in high impacted journals and written more than 10 chapters in books in the field of autoimmunity. He received various awards such as excellence in residency and research in internal medicine – Israel, 2014, Shelbi award-2015, outstanding tutor of medical students-2015, and 1st prize for best basic clinical research -2016. He has been invited to numerous international congresses such as EULAR, and the international congress of autoimmunity.

Affiliations and expertise

Autoimmune Diseases Sheba Medical Center, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel

Yehuda Shoenfeld

Professor Yehuda Shoenfeld is the President of the Center for Autoimmune Diseases (present), incumbent of the Laura Schwarz-Kipp Chair for Research of Autoimmune Diseases in Tel Aviv University (since 2002–Present), Emeritus Professor of the Sackler School of Medicine in Tel Aviv University and teaches medical studies and MSc and PhD students (since 1985). Prof. Shoenfeld has edited a series of textbooks entailing "The Mosaic of Autoimmunity," "Autoantibodies," "Infection and Autoimmunity," and "Diagnostic Criteria of Autoimmune Diseases" (Elsevier Pub.). He has served on 36 editorial boards and is the organizer of more than 25 international congresses on autoimmunity. He is the author of > 2000 peer-reviewed papers reported in the field of autoimmunity and internal medicine. More than 65,000 citations.

Affiliations and expertise

Zabludowitcz Center of Autoimmunity, Sheba Medical Center and Reichman University, Herzelya, Israel