Hydrogen in Steel

Foreword

Abbreviations

Chapter 1. Metals and Hydrogen


1.1. Introduction


1.2. Thermal Dissociation of Molecular Hydrogen


1.3. The Recombination Reaction


1.4. Interaction of Hydrogen with the Metal Surface


1.5. Adsorption, Bulk Occlusion and Catalytic Activity


1.6. Negative Catalytic Activity of Some Elements and Compounds


1.7. "Metallic" Hydrogen


1.8. Periodic System and Occlusion of Hydrogen


1.9. Hydrides of C-Class Metals


1.10. The Nature of the Interstitial Solution of Hydrogen in Metals


1.11. Magnetic Properties of Palladium Charged with Hydrogen; The Theory of Mott and Jones


1.12. Supersaturation Hydrogen


1.13. The Structure of the Palladium Hydride


1.14. Nickel Hydride


1.15. Summary and Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 2. The Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron and Ferrous Alloys


2.1. Introductory Remarks


2.2. Units in which Hydrogen Content is Measured


2.3. The Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron at 1 atm Pressure and at Different Temperatures


2.4. The Dependence of the Solubility on Pressure


2.5. Energy Changes Accompanying the Process of Hydrogen Absorption by Iron


2.6. The Solubility of Hydrogen Isotopes in Iron


2.7. The Dependence of the Solubility of Hydrogen in Steel on the Composition of the Steel


2.8. The Influence of the Crystallographic Structure


2.9. Charging of Iron and Nickel with Hydrogen Evolved from Acids


2.10. The Influence of Cold Work and Strain


2.11. The Influence of Surface Condition


2.12. Relationship Between the Hydrogen Content of Iron, Temperature and Pressure of Hydrogen Accumulated in Voids


2.13. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 3. The Diffusion and Permeation of Hydrogen Through Iron and Steel


3.1. Early Works on the Passage of Hydrogen Through Metals


3.2. The Possible Mechanism of Hydrogen Flow Through Metals


3.3. Fick's Law and its Applicability to the Flow of Hydrogen Through Metals


3.4. The Effect of Thickness of the Metal Wall Upon the Hydrogen Flow


3.5. The Effect of Pressure


3.6. The Effect of Temperature


3.7. Experimental Results on the Permeation Rate of Hydrogen Through Iron and Steel at Elevated Temperatures


3.8. Experimental Results Obtained by Using the Unsteady State of Flow


3.9. Experimental Results on the Permeation Rate of Nascent Hydrogen


3.10. Experimental Results Concerning the Permeation of Hydrogen Through Iron During a Sparking Discharge


3.11. Effect of Concentration of the Diffusing Substance Upon the Diffusion Coefficient


3.12. The Effect of Grain Size and of Crystallographic Factors


3.13. Effect of Cold-Work and Strain


3.14. Effects of the Composition and Structure of Steel


3.15. Effects of the State of Surface


3.16. The Dependence of the Permeation Rate of Nascent and Electrolytically Evolved Hydrogen on the Electrolyte's Composition


3.17. Permeation of Hydrogen from Flames


3.18. Penetration Through Steel of Atomic Hydrogen Produced by the Heating of a Tungsten Wire in a Rarefied Hydrogen Atmosphere


3.19. The Activity of Hydrogen Desorbed from Metals


3.20. The Effect of an Electric Field


3.21. Comparison of the Diffusivity of Hydrogen Isotopes


3.22. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 4. Electrochemical Problems Related to the Ability of Iron to Absorb Hydrogen from Aqueous Solutions


4.1. Introduction


4.2. The Electrode Potential of Iron


4.3. Effect of Hydrogen on the Potential of Iron


4.4. Cathodic Evolution of Hydrogen on Metals which Occlude this Element


4.5. Cathodic Occlusion and Theories of Hydrogen Overpotential


4.6. Some Recent Studies Concerning the Effect of Hydrogen on the Electrochemical Behaviour of Iron


4.7. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 5. Dimensional Changes and Stresses Produced in Steel by Cathodically Evolved Hydrogen


5.1. Changes in the Lattice Spacings Due to Hydrogénation


5.2. Stresses Created by Hydrogenation


5.3. Elastic-Plastic Deformation of Iron and Steel Cathodes


5.4. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 6. The Effect of Hydrogen on the Physical Properties of Iron and Steel


6.1. Magnetic Properties of Electrodeposited Iron


6.2. Influence of Cathodically Evolved Hydrogen Upon the Magnetic Properties of Mild Steel


6.3. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Properties of Silicon Steel


6.4. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Properties of Permanent Magnets


6.5. Effect of Hydrogen on the Magnetic Properties of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steel


6.6. Effect of Hydrogen on the Electrical Resistance of Metals


6.7. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 7. Effects of Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Steel


7.1. Introduction


7.2. The Elastic Modulus


7.3. The Internal Friction Method


7.4. Internal Friction of Iron and Steel Specimens Charged with Hydrogen


7.5. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Proportionality Limit and the Yield Point of Steel


7.6. Changes in Hardness Due to Hydrogenation


7.7. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Elongation and the Reduction in Area at Fracture


7.8. Influence of the Composition, Cold Work and Structure of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels on their Susceptibility to Hydrogen Embrittlement


7.9. Effects of Varying Temperature and Strain Rate on the Elongation and Reduction in Area of Hydrogenized Steels


7.10. Influence of Hydrogen on the Tensile Strength and the Fracture Stress of Steel


7.11. Effect of Hydrogen on Stress vs. Strain Curve


7.12. Results of Experiments Performed on Notched Tensile Test Specimens


7.13. The Part Played by Grain Boundaries and Cleavage Planes in the Phenomenon of Hydrogen Embrittlement


7.14. Influence of Hydrogen on the Impact Test


7.15. Use of the Bend Test for Evaluating the Degree of Hydrogen Embrittlement


7.16. Some Results of Zapffe et al. Concerning Hydrogen Embrittlement of Stainless Steel


7.17. Evaluation of Hydrogen Embrittlement by Using the Torsion Test


7.18. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Steels


7.19. Delayed Failure in Hydrogenated Steels


7.20. Work of Troiano et al. Concerning the Hydrogen-Induced Brittle Fracture of Steel


7.21. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Endurance Limit of Steel


7.22. Theories of Hydrogen Embrittlement


7.23. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 8. Chemical Effects of Hydrogen


8.1. Decarburization


8.2. Desulphurization


8.3. Dephosphorization


8.4. Denitriding


8.5. Deoxidation


8.6. Summary and Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 9. Hydrogen Evolution from Steel


9.1. Evolution of Hydrogen from Liquid Iron and Steel at Temperatures near Freezing Point


9.2. The Evolution of Hydrogen at Transformation Points


9.3. Evolution of Hydrogen from Steel in the Lower Temperature Range


9.4. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 10. Hydrogen as Alloying Element in Steel


10.1. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Transformation Points of Iron


10.2. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Structure of Steel


10.3. The Influence of Hydrogen on the Structure of Cast Iron


10.4. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 11. Hydrogen in Steelmaking


11.1. Introduction


11.2. American Investigations


11.3. British Investigations


11.4. French Investigations


11.5. German Investigations


11.6. Japanese Investigations


11.7. Soviet Russian Investigations


11.8. Czechoslovakian Investigations


11.9. Summary and Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 12. Flakes (Hair-Line Cracks) Produced by Hydrogen in Steel


12.1. Definition, Characteristics and Occurrence of Flakes


12.2. The Incubation Period for Flake Formation


12.3. Earlier Opinions on the Origin of Flakes in Steel


12.4. Some German, Italian and Japanese Studies on the Dependence of Flake Formation Upon the Hydrogen Content in Steel


12.5. Results and Conclusions of Andrew et al.


12.6. The Work of Dubovoi


12.7. The Opinion of Meskin


12.8. Preventive Measures Against Flaking of Steel


12.9. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 13. Hydrogen in Cast Iron


13.1. Introduction


13.2. Changes in the Hydrogen Content of Cast Iron, Depending Upon its Composition and Method of Production


13.3. Pinholing in Cast Iron


13.4. Effect of Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Cast Iron


13.5. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 14. Hydrogen in Welding


14.1. Effect of the Method of Welding on the Hydrogen Content


14.2. The Formation of Porosity


14.3. The Formation of Cracks


14.4. Fisheyes in Weld Deposits


14.5. Effect of Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Welds


14.6. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 15. Hydrogen in Pickling


15.1. Introduction


15.2. Effect of Hydrogen Ion Concentration


15.3. Effect of Anions


15.4. Effect of Temperature


15.5. Effect of Poisons (Promoters of Hydrogenation)


15.6. Effect of Polar Organic Compounds (Inhibitors)


15.7. Influence of the Condition of the Steel. Practical Problems


15.8. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 16. Hydrogen in Electroplating


16.1. Hydrogen Content of Electrodeposited Iron


16.2. Embrittlement Caused by Electroplating


16.3. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 17. The Sulphide Corrosion Cracking of Steel


17.1. Characteristics of the Phenomenon


17.2. The Mechanism of the Reaction of Moist Hydrogen Sulphide with Iron


17.3. Blistering of Steel in Hydrogen Sulphide Solutions


17.4. Effect of Composition and Structure of Steel on its Susceptibility to Embrittlement by Hydrogen Sulphide


17.5. Practical Measures Against Sulphide Corrosion Cracking of Steel in Service


17.6. Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 18. Action of Hydrogen on Steel Under High Pressure


18.1. Introduction


18.2. Deterioration of Steel by Hydrogen in Conditions of Ammonia Synthesis


18.3. The Probable Part Played by Hydrogen in the Embrittlement of Boilers


18.4. Summary and Conclusions

Bibliography

Chapter 19. Determination of Hydrogen in Iron and Steel


19.1. Introduction


19.2. Sampling of Liquid Steel by Rapid Cooling


19.3. Sampling of Liquid Steel and Collecting the Evolved Gas


19.4. Storage of Samples


19.5. Measurement of the Gas Evolution at Normal Pressure


19.6. The Solid State Vacuum Extraction Method


19.7. The Vacuum Fusion Method


19.8. The Tin Fusion Method


19.9. The Total Combustion Method


19.10. The Carrier-Gas Method


19.11. Spectral Methods


19.12. Hydrogen Determination in Cast Iron


19.13. Conclusions

Bibliography

Subject Index