High Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion of Metals

Chapter 1. The Nature of High Temperature Oxidation

• 1.1. Metal Loss Due to the Scaling of Steel
• 1.2. Heating Elements
• 1.3. Protecting Turbine Engine Components
• 1.4. Hydrocarbon Cracking Furnaces
• 1.5. Prediction and Measurement
• 1.6. Rate Equations
• 1.7. Reaction Morphology: Specimen Examination
• 1.8. Summary

Chapter 2. Enabling Theory

• 2.1. Chemical Thermodynamics
• 2.2. Chemical Equilibria Between Solids and Gases
• 2.3. Alloys and Solid Solutions
• 2.4. Chemical Equilibria Between Alloys and Gases
• 2.5. Thermodynamics of Diffusion
• 2.6. Absolute Rate Theory Applied to Lattice Particle Diffusion
• 2.7. Diffusion in Alloys
• 2.8. Diffusion Couples and the Measurement of Diffusion Coefficients
• 2.9. Interfacial Processes and Gas Phase Mass Transfer
• 2.10. Mechanical Effects: Stresses in Oxide Scales
• Further Reading

Chapter 3. Oxidation of Pure Metals

• 3.1. Experimental Findings
• 3.2. Use of Phase Diagrams
• 3.3. Point Defects and Nonstoichiometry in Ionic Oxides
• 3.4. Lattice Species and Structural Units in Ionic Oxides
• 3.5. Gibbs–Duhem Equation for Defective Solid Oxides
• 3.6. Lattice Diffusion and Oxide Scaling: Wagner's Model
• 3.7. Validation of Wagner's Model
• 3.8. Impurity Effects on Lattice Diffusion
• 3.9. Microstructural Effects
• 3.10. Reactions Not Controlled by Solid-State Diffusion
• 3.11. The Value of Thermodynamic and Kinetic Analysis

Chapter 4. Mixed Gas Corrosion of Pure Metals

• 4.1. Introduction
• 4.2. Selected Experimental Findings
• 4.3. Phase Diagrams and Diffusion Paths
• 4.4. Scale-Gas Interactions
• 4.5. Transport Processes in Mixed Scales
• 4.6. Predicting the Outcome of Mixed Gas Reactions

Chapter 5. Oxidation of Alloys I: Single Phase Scales

• 5.1. Introduction
• 5.2. Selected Experimental Results
• 5.3. Phase Diagrams and Diffusion Paths
• 5.4. Selective Oxidation of One Alloy Component
• 5.5. Selective Oxidation of One Alloy Component Under Nonsteady-State Conditions
• 5.6. Solid Solution Oxide Scales
• 5.7. Transient Oxidation
• 5.8. Microstructural Changes in Subsurface Alloy Regions
• 5.9. Breakdown of Steady-State Scale
• 5.10. Other Factors Affecting Scale Growth

Chapter 6. Alloy Oxidation II: Internal Oxidation

• 6.1. Introduction
• 6.2. Selected Experimental Results
• 6.3. Internal Oxidation Kinetics in the Absence of External Scaling
• 6.4. Experimental Verification of Diffusion Model
• 6.5. Surface Diffusion Effects in the Precipitation Zone
• 6.6. Internal Precipitates of Low Stability
• 6.7. Precipitate Nucleation and Growth
• 6.8. Cellular Precipitation Morphologies
• 6.9. Multiple Internal Precipitates
• 6.10. Solute Interactions in the Precipitation Zone
• 6.11. Transition from Internal to External Oxidation
• 6.12. Internal Oxidation Beneath a Corroding Alloy Surface
• 6.13. Volume Expansion in the Internal Precipitation Zone
• 6.14. Effects of Water Vapour on Internal Oxidation
• 6.15. Success of Internal Oxidation Theory

Chapter 7. Alloy Oxidation III: Multiphase Scales

• 7.1. Introduction
• 7.2. Binary Alumina Formers
• 7.3. Binary Chromia Formers
• 7.4. Ternary Alloy Oxidation
• 7.5. Scale Spallation
• 7.6. Effects of Minor Alloying Additions
• 7.7. Effects of Secondary Oxidants
• 7.8. ‘Available Space’ Model for Duplex Oxide Scale Growth
• 7.9. Status of Multiphase Scale Growth Theory

Chapter 8. Corrosion by Sulphur

• 8.1. Introduction
• 8.2. Sulphidation of Pure Metals
• 8.3. Alloying for Sulphidation Protection
• 8.4. Sulphidation in H2/H2S
• 8.5. Effects of Temperature and Sulphur Partial Pressure
• 8.6. The Role of Oxygen
• 8.7. Internal Sulphidation
• 8.8. Hot Corrosion
• 8.9. Achieving Sulphidation Resistance

Chapter 9. Corrosion by Carbon

• 9.1. Introduction
• 9.2. Gaseous Carbon Activities
• 9.3. Carburisation
• 9.4. Intenal Carburisation of Model Alloys
• 9.5. Internal Carburisation of Heat-Resisting Alloys
• 9.6. Metal Dusting of Iron and Ferritic Alloys
• 9.7. Dusting of Nickel and Austenitic Alloys
• 9.8. Protection by Oxide Scaling
• 9.9. Controlling Carbon Corrosion

Chapter 10. Corrosion by Carbon Dioxide

• 10.1. Introduction
• 10.2. Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Morphologies
• 10.3. Thermodynamics and Distribution of Reaction Products
• 10.4. Mechanism of Breakaway
• 10.5. Carbon Penetration of Oxide Scales
• 10.6. Effects of Other Alloy and Gas Components
• 10.7. Remedial Measures

Chapter 11. Effects of Water Vapour on Oxidation

• 11.1. Introduction
• 11.2. Volatile Metal Hydroxide Formation
• 11.3. Scale-Gas Interfacial Processes
• 11.4. Scale Transport Properties
• 11.5. Water Vapour Effects on Alumina Growth
• 11.6. Iron Oxide Scaling
• 11.7. Void Development in Growing Scales
• 11.8. Understanding and Controlling Water Vapour Effects

Chapter 12. Corrosion in Complex Environments

• 12.1. Introduction
• 12.2. Volatilisation by Halogens
• 12.3. Corrosion by Flue Gases and Solid Chlorides
• 12.4. Corrosion by Melts
• 12.5. Managing Complex Corrosion

Chapter 13. Cyclic Oxidation

• 13.1. Introduction
• 13.2. Alloy Depletion and Scale Rehealing
• 13.3. Spallation Models
• 13.4. Combination of Spalling and Depletion Models
• 13.5. Effects of Experimental Variables
• 13.6. Describing and Predicting Cyclic Oxidation

Chapter 14. Alloy Design

• 14.1. Introduction
• 14.2. Alloy Design for Resistance to Oxygen
• 14.3. Design Against Oxide Scale Spallation
• 14.4. Design for Resistance to Other Corrodents and Mixed Gases
• 14.5. Future Research
• 14.6. Fundamental Research
• 14.7. Conclusion

Appendix A. High Temperature Alloys

Appendix B. Cation Diffusion Kinetics in Ionic Solids

Appendix C. The Error Function

Appendix D. Self-Diffusion Coefficients