Healthcare-Associated Infections in Australia

Principles and Practice of Infection Prevention and Control

1st Edition - April 1, 2023
Editors: Ramon Z. Shaban, Brett G. Mitchell, Deborough Macbeth, Philip Russo
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 7 2 9 5 - 4 3 6 4 - 4
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 7 2 9 5 - 8 8 3 5 - 5

Infection prevention and control (IPC) is everybody’s responsibility. Healthcare-associated Infections in Australia is the first Australian text to address the challenges posed… Read more

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Infection prevention and control (IPC) is everybody’s responsibility. Healthcare-associated Infections in Australia is the first Australian text to address the challenges posed by infectious diseases and healthcareassociated infections (HAIs) for all members of the multidisciplinary healthcare team.

Drawing on the expertise of a wide author team, and based on current research, this important and comprehensive text provides a clear pathway for the reader to increase their knowledge and understanding of IPC. The text is designed for both students and practising clinicians, and is presented in two sections – Principles and Practice – for ease of use.

With IPC principles and guidelines now embedded into all health-related curricula, and mandated by standards and guidelines across all areas of healthcare, this is a book no health professional should miss.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Foreword Australasian College for Infection Prevention and Control (ACIPC)
Foreword Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases (ASID)
Preface
Editorial Board
Contributors
Reviewers
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
SECTION 1. Principles
1. The history of healthcare-associated infections and infection prevention and control in Australia
Introduction
Part A Precedents and global trends
1.1 19th century
1.2 20th century
Part B Pathogens
1.3 The dominant role of staphylococcus aureus
1.4 Environmental and enteric bacteria
1.5 Blood-borne viruses (BBVs)
1.6 Epidemic/community viruses
Part C People and programs
1.7 1960s—Surgeons, bacteriologists and early ICP appointments
1.8 1970s–90s—Hesitant beginnings and evolution of hospital IPC programs
Part D Policies and practices
1.9 Segregating people who are (or may be) infectious
1.10 HAI surveillance—19th and early 20th century
1.11 Hand hygiene
Part E Conclusions—what has history taught US about IPC in Australia?
1.12 Physical environment
1.13 Administration and governance
Coda
References
2. Contemporary infection prevention and control, and clinical infectious diseases in Australia
Introduction
2.1 Healthcare in Australia
2.2 The types, categories and prevalence of HAIs in Australia
2.3 Contemporary challenges and the burden of HAIs on populations and the Australian healthcare system
2.4 Clinical infectious diseases
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
3. Sciences of infection and disease
Introduction
3.1 Pathogenic microorganisms
3.2 Pathogenic biological particles
3.3 Multicellular parasites
3.4 Transmission of pathogens
3.5 Host–pathogen interactions
3.6 Immunological responses
3.7 Diagnosis of pathogens
3.8 Therapies for pathogens
Useful websites/resources
References
4. Infection prevention and control programs and plans
Introduction
4.1 Infection prevention, control and management
4.2 Commonwealth IPC programs and plans
4.3 State and territory IPC programs and plans
4.4 Developing an infection control management plan
4.5 Challenges for infection prevention and control (IPC) programs
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
5. The role of the infection control professional
Introduction
5.1 The healthcare context
5.2 Surveillance
5.3 Education
5.4 Consultation
5.5 Governance
5.6 Staff health
5.7 Planning and professionalism
5.8 Knowledge generation
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
6. Governance, accreditation and standards in infection prevention and control
Introduction
6.1 Defining clinical governance
6.2 Roles in clinical governance
6.3 Accreditation
6.4 Infection prevention and control standards
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
7. Risk assessment and management in infection prevention and control
Introduction
7.1 The healthcare context
7.2 Governance
7.3 A structured and comprehensive approach
7.4 Risk assessment
7.5 Risk identification
7.6 Risk mitigation
7.7 Monitoring and reviewing
7.8 Recording and reporting risks
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
8. Infection prevention and control for One Health
Introduction
8.1 One health: Its origins and importance to infection prevention and control
8.2 One health: A concept by another name
8.3 Challenges or critiques of One Health
8.4 Factors within One Health driving infectious disease outbreaks
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
References
9. Public health and infection prevention and control
Introduction
9.1 Defining public health
9.2 A brief history of public health: From Europe to Australia
9.3 Public health infrastructure in Australia
9.4 Intersections of public health and infection prevention and control
9.5 Contemporary challenges for public health and IPC in Australia
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
References
10. Epidemiology and surveillance
Introduction
10.1 Epidemiology
10.2 Surveillance
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
11. Outbreak management
Introduction
11.1 The history of outbreaks in Australia
11.2 Outbreak management in Australia—government and health sector response frameworks
11.3 Outbreak management in Australia—broad strategies
11.4 Outbreak management in and for healthcare settings
11.5 Outbreak investigation
11.6 Challenges in outbreak management in Australia
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
12. Research in infection prevention and control
Introduction
12.1 Background and context of infection prevention and control research
12.2 Solving problems in infection prevention and control
12.3 Research designs
12.4 Research ethics
12.5 Outbreak investigation
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
SECTION 2. Practice
13. Standard precautions
Introduction
13.1 Standard precautions overview
13.2 Hand hygiene
13.3 Respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette
13.4 Selection and use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
13.5 Maintaining a safe environment
13.6 Cleaning
13.7 Environmental cleaning
13.8 Asepsis overview
13.9 Healthcare worker and employer responsibilities for standard precautions
13.10 Implementation of standard precautions
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
14. Transmission-based precautions
Introduction
14.1 Historical segregation practices
14.2 Transmission of infection
14.3 Overview of transmission-based precautions
14.4 Specific transmission-based precautions
14.5 Personal protective equipment
14.6 A shifting paradigm
14.7 Other considerations
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
15. Environmental cleaning
Introduction
15.1 Evidence that the environment poses a risk of transmission
15.2 Key considerations for a cleaning program
15.3 Assessment of level of risk for cleaning and decontamination
15.4 Cleaning/decontamination principles and procedures
15.5 Single use equipment
15.6 Supporting a safer environment through cleaning and decontamination
15.7 Assessing the effectiveness of environmental cleaning
15.8 Feedback of the results of environmental monitoring
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
16. Disinfection and sterilisation
Introduction
16.1 The australian regulatory framework for medical devices, sterilants and disinfectants
16.2 The relationship between australian and international standards
16.3 The spaulding classification
16.4 Processing environments
16.5 Point of care processing
16.6 Water quality
16.7 Steps in processing of reusable medical devices
16.8 Point of use pre-treatment
16.9 Cleaning
16.10 Drying RMDs and endoscopes
16.11 Inspection and maintenance
16.12 Packaging
16.13 Sterilisation
16.14 Storage and transportation of processed RMDs
16.15 Quality assurance and quality control in medical device processing
16.16 Criteria for release of processed RMDs
16.17 Traceability
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
17. Urinary tract infections
Introduction
17.1 Epidemiology of urinary tract infections
17.2 What are urinary tract infections?
17.3 Diagnostic methods for UTI
17.4 UTI treatment, prevention and antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
17.5 Classifications and definitions of UTIs by geographical location
17.6 Catheter-associated UTI (CAUTI)
17.7 Quality improvement programs
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
18. Surgical site infections
Introduction
18.1 Definitions of surgical site infections
18.2 Epidemiology and burden of surgical site infections
18.3 Aetiology of surgical site infections
18.4 Risk factors for surgical site infections
18.5 Infection prevention and control interventions
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
19. Pneumonia and other respiratory infections
Introduction
19.1 Epidemiology
19.2 Surveillance of NV-HAP
19.3 Prevention and control of NV-HAP
19.4 Influenza
19.5 Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
19.6 Coronavirus (COVID-19)
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
20. Bloodstream infections
Introduction
20.1 Definitions
20.2 Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections (SABSIs)
20.3 Device-related infections
20.4 Prevention Methods—HA-SABSIs
20.5 Prevention of other healthcare-associated infections
20.6 Investigation, surveillance and governance
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
21. Gastrointestinal infections
Introduction
21.1 Clostridioides difficile
21.2 Noroviruses
21.3 Rotavirus
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
22. Significant and multiresistant organism infections, and antimicrobial resistance
Introduction
22.1 Staphylococcus aureus
22.2 Enterococcus
22.3 Enterobacterales
22.4 Acinetobacter spp.
22.5 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
22.6 Burkholderia cepacia
22.7 Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
22.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis
22.9 Candida auris
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
23. High consequence infectious diseases and biocontainment for health protection
Introduction
23.1 International definitions of HCIDs
23.2 Defining HCIDs in Australia
23.3 Australian experience of HCIDs
23.4 Risk to healthcare workers
23.5 Designated biocontainment facilities for HCIDs
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
24. Construction, redevelopment and the built environment
Introduction
24.1 Environmental risks
24.2 Managing risk: The hierarchy of control
24.3 A structured approach
24.4 Infection control by design
24.6 General considerations
24.8 Heating, ventilation, air conditioning and water systems
Conclusion
References
25. Blood-borne viruses
Introduction
25.1 Characteristics of blood-borne viruses
25.2 Transmission of BBVs in the healthcare setting
25.3 Preventing transmission of BBVs in the healthcare setting
25.4 Managing BBV exposures in the healthcare setting
25.5 HCWs living with a BBV
25.6 Other viruses with the potential for blood-borne transmission
25.7 Screening of blood donors for BBVs
Conclusion
Useful websites/references
References
26. Infection prevention and control for staff health and occupational exposure
Introduction
26.1 Vaccine-preventable diseases and pre-employment screening
26.2 Occupational exposure to blood and body fluids
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
27. Infection prevention and control in emergency care settings
Introduction
27.1 Characteristics and contexts of emergency care in Australia
27.2 Healthcare-associated infections and infectious diseases in emergency care
27.3 Infection prevention and control in emergency care
27.4 Specific infection prevention and disease control challenges in emergency care
Useful websites/resources
References
28. Infection prevention and control in intensive and critical care settings
Introduction
28.1 Characteristics and contexts of intensive and critical care settings in Australia and New Zealand
28.2 HAI risks associated with critical care settings in Australia and New Zealand
28.3 Prevention and control of HAI in critical care settings
28.4 Novel respiratory infections: A new threat
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
29. Infection prevention and control in residential aged care settings
Introduction
29.1 Characteristics of Australian residential aged care facilities
29.2 Residential aged care residents and infections
29.3 Infection prevention and control organisational support and work practices
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
30. Infection prevention and control in oncology and immunocompromised patient settings
Introduction
30.1 Characteristics and contexts of oncology and the immunocompromised in Australia
30.2 Healthcare-associated infection risks associated with care in oncology and the immunocompromised in Australia
30.3 Prevention and control of HAIs associated with care in oncology and the immunocompromised in Australia
30.4 Infection control—healthcare setting
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
31. Infection prevention and control in mental health and psychiatric practice settings
Introduction
31.1 Overview of mental health services in Australia
31.2 Infectious diseases and HAIs in mental health and psychiatric practice settings
31.3 IPC in mental health settings in Australia
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
32. Infection prevention and control in medical, veterinary and scientific laboratory settings
Introduction
32.1 Principles of laboratory biocontainment
32.2 Containment measure types
32.3 Common laboratory-acquired infections
32.4 Bacterial LAIs
32.5 Viral LAIs
32.6 Other LAIs
32.7 IPC in laboratory settings
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
33. Infection prevention and control in operating theatre and endoscopy practice
Introduction
33.1 Historical infection control and surgery
33.2 Mitigating the risk of infection
33.3 A care bundle approach to infection
33.4 Perioperative surgical and procedural team IPC responsibilities
33.5 Surgical and endoscopy unit design
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
34. Infection prevention and control in dentistry practice
Introduction
34.1 Dentistry and dental practice settings
34.2 HAIs and modes of transmission in the dental practice setting
34.3 Prevention and control of HAIs in the dental practice setting
34.4 IPC programs and education in dentistry
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
35. Infection prevention and control in allied health settings–physiotherapy, speech pathology, podiatry and rehabilitation
Introduction
35.1 Physiotherapy
35.2 Speech pathology
35.3 Podiatry
35.4 Rehabilitation units
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
36. Infection prevention and co ntrol in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health
Introduction
36.1 Influencing factors for health and illness in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
36.2 Infection prevention and control for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health
36.3 Communicating the message differently—caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people within the IPC context
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
37. Infection prevention and control in home and community health settings
Introduction
37.1 Characteristics and contexts of home and community health settings in Australia
37.2 Prevention and control of HAIs in home and community health settings in Australia
37.3 HAI risks associated with home and community health settings in Australia
37.4 Strategies for infection prevention in patient homes
37.5 Sterile stock and shared equipment in the community health and home setting
37.6 Patient knowledge and education
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
38. Infection prevention and control in radiology and diagnostic imaging practice settings
Introduction
38.1 Ultrasound
38.2 Interventional radiology
38.3 Medical imaging during an outbreak
38.4 Discussion
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
39. Infection prevention and control in correctional health practice
Introduction
39.1 Overview of custodial governance in Australia
39.2 The justice system custodial population in Australia
39.3 Correctional context challenges
39.4 The built environment considerations for IPC
39.5 Correctional health staffing
39.6 Health information sharing
39.7 Common IPC issues in correctional healthcare
39.8 Contact transmissible diseases
39.9 Correctional IPC governance
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
40. Infection prevention and control in veterinary practice
Introduction
40.1 Setting the scene: Characteristics and context of veterinary practice in Australia
40.2 HAI risks in veterinary practice settings in Australia
40.3 IPC in veterinary practice
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
41. Infection prevention and control in pharmacy practice and antimicrobial stewardship
Introduction
41.1 IPC in pharmacy practice
41.2 AMS and the role of the pharmacist
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
42. Infection prevention and control in maternity settings
Introduction
42.1 Characteristics and contexts of maternity care (midwifery/obstetric practice)
42.2 Mode of infection transmission in the perinatal period
42.3 Blood-borne pathogens (BBPs)
42.4 Common pathogens in the perinatal period and HAIs
42.5 Maternity-specific site infections
42.6 Homebirth—use of reusable equipment/cleaning practices
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
43. Infection prevention and control in neonatal and paediatric health
Introduction
43.1 Characteristics of infants, children and young people in Australia
43.2 Features and settings of neonatal and paediatric healthcare
43.3 Epidemiology of HAIs in neonatal and paediatric populations
43.4 HAI risks in neonatal and paediatric health
43.5 Types of HAIs
43.6 Specific IPC practices for neonatal and paediatric health
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
44. Infection prevention and control in primary healthcare settings
Introduction
44.1 Clinical governance
44.2 The role of the IPC coordinator
44.3 Staff induction and training
44.4 Triage and waiting room management
44.5 Immunisation and vaccine potency
44.6 Reprocessing of reusable instruments in small office-based settings
44.7 Antimicrobial resistance and primary care
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
45. Infection prevention and control in cosmetic, tattooing, piercing and personal appearance practice and settings
Introduction
45.1 Infection prevention and control in cosmetic, tattooing, piercing and personal appearance practice and settings
45.2 HAI risks in cosmetic, tattooing, piercing and personal service settings
45.3 IPC in cosmetic, tattooing, piercing and personal service settings
Conclusion
Useful websites/resources
References
Index

Ramon Z. Shaban

Professor Ramon Z. Shaban BSc(Med), BN, GradCertInfCon, PGDipPH&TM, MEd, MCommHealthPrac(Hons1), PhD, RN, CICP-E, FCENA, FACN, FACIPC Clinical Chair of Communicable Diseases Control and Infection Prevention, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute and Susan Wakil School of Nursing and Midwifery, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia; Clinical Chair of Communicable Diseases Control and Infection Prevention, Public Health Unit, Centre for Population Health, Western Sydney Local Health District, North Parramatta, New South Wales, Australia; District Director and Chief Infection Control Practitioner, Western Sydney Local Health District, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Associate Director, New South Wales Biocontainment Centre, New South Wales Specialist Service for High Consequence Infectious Diseases Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; Senior Editor, Infection, Disease and Health, Australasian College for Infection Prevention and Control, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Affiliations and expertise

Clinical Chair of Communicable Diseases Control and Infection Prevention, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute and Susan Wakil School of Nursing and Midwifery, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia

Brett G. Mitchell

Professor Brett G. Mitchell BN, DipTropN, CertHealthM, GradCertTeachSuper, MAdvPrac, PhD, RN, CICP-E, FACN, FACIPC Professor of Nursing and Health Services Research, School of Nursing and Health, Avondale University, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales, Australia; Conjoint Scholar, Central Coast Local Health District, Gosford Hospital, New South Wales, Australia; Adjunct Professor of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Infection Prevention and Control Lead, Infection Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Editor-in-Chief, Infection, Disease and Health, Australasian College for Infection Prevention and Control, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Nursing and Health Services Research, School of Nursing and Health, Avondale University, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales, Australia

Deborough Macbeth

Dr Deborough Macbeth BN, MAAppEthics, PhD, RN, CICP-E, PSM Assistant Director of Nursing (Infection Control), Gold Coast Hospital and Health Service, Southport, Queensland, Australia

Affiliations and expertise

Assistant Director of Nursing (Infection Control), Gold Coast Hospital and Health Service, Southport, Queensland, Australia

Philip Russo

Professor Philip L. Russo BN, MClinEpid, PhD, RN, CICP-E, MACN, FACICPC Professor of Nursing and Director of Research, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Director of Nursing Research, Cabrini Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Adjunct Associate Professor of Nursing, School of Nursing and Health, Avondale University, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales, Australia

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Nursing and Director of Research, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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Healthcare-Associated Infections in Australia

Principles and Practice of Infection Prevention and Control

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Ramon Z. Shaban

Brett G. Mitchell

Deborough Macbeth

Philip Russo