Handbook on Natural Pigments in Food and Beverages

Part One. Consumer Expectations and Legal Framework of Food Colorants

• 1. Food Color and Coloring Food: Quality, Differentiation and Regulatory Requirements in the European Union and the United States
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Coloring Principles Used for Food Coloring
  • 3. Coloring Food With Food
  • 4. Food Colors: EU Regulations
  • 5. Guidance Notes
  • 6. Food Color Regulations in the United States
  • 7. Consumer Expectations
• 2. The Psychological Effects of Food Colors
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Psychological Effects of Food Color: Setting Sensory Expectations
  • 3. Names, Brands, and Colors
  • 4. Psychological Effects of Food Color on Behavior
  • 5. Marketing Color
  • 6. Individual Differences in the Psychological Effects of Color
  • 7. The Future of Color in Food
  • 8. Conclusions

Part Two. General Considerations About Pigment Stability

• 3. Anthocyanins
  • 1. Structural Diversity of Anthocyanins and Their Occurrence in Food Plants
  • 2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Having an Impact on Color Evolution and Anthocyanin Stability
  • 3. Factors Affecting Anthocyanin Stability Upon Processing and Storage
  • 4. Future Perspectives
• 4. Betalains
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Stability Related to Structure and Degradation Pathways
  • 3. Factors Affecting Betalain Stability
  • 4. Effect of Processing on Betalain Stability
  • 5. Effect of Storage Conditions on Betalain Stability
  • 6. Improving Betalain Stability in the Production of Betalain-Based Natural Colorants
  • 7. Biological Effects of Betalains
  • 8. Conclusions
• 5. Carotenoids
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Chemical and Physical Properties of Carotenoids
  • 3. Effects of Food Processing on the Stability of Carotenoids
  • 4. Analytical Perspectives
  • 5. Conclusions
• 6. Chlorophylls
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Structure, Localization, and Function
  • 3. Biosynthesis and Catabolism
  • 4. Structures Present in Foods
  • 5. Biological Actions
  • 6. Analysis
  • 7. Chlorophylls as Food Additives
  • 8. Future Trends

Part Three. Specific Industrial Applications of Natural Colorants

• Section One. Application Notes
  • 7. Coloring Aqueous Food Types
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. General Note on Coloring Foods
    • 3. Aqueous Food Systems Challenges
    • 4. Examples of Aqueous Food Systems
    • 5. Summary
  • 8. Coloring of Low-Moisture and Gelatinized Food Products
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Confectionery Products
    • 3. Aerated Confectionery
    • 4. Hard-Boiled Candy
    • 5. Dragees
    • 6. Fruit Preparations, Jams, and Fruit-Based Spreads
    • 7. Conclusions
  • 9. Ice Cream
    • 1. Definition and Classification of Frozen Desserts
    • 2. Legislation
    • 3. Ice Cream
    • 4. Sorbets
    • 5. Packaging and Light Stability
    • 6. Distribution and Storage
  • 10. Applications of Different Curing Approaches and Natural Colorants in Meat Products
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. General Considerations and History
    • 3. Stabilization of Meat Color by Complexing Myoglobin
    • 4. Red Colorants of Animal Origin: Carmine/Cochenille
    • 5. Applications of Plant-Derived Colorants
    • 6. Applications of Microbial Pigments
    • 7. Toxicology, Food Safety Considerations, and Risk Assessment
    • 8. Regulatory Aspects Regarding Natural Curing Agents and Meat Colorants
    • 9. Conclusions
  • 11. Coloration of Cereal-Based Products
    • 1. Definition and Classification of Cereal-Based Products
    • 2. Legislation
    • 3. Extruded Ready-To-Eat Cereals
    • 4. Fine Bakery
• Section Two. Reviews
  • 12. Improvement and Stabilization of Red Wine Color
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Chemistry of Red Wine Pigments
    • 3. Modulation of Anthocyanin Composition and Concentration in Red Wines
    • 4. Enological Practices to Improve and Stabilize Red Wine Color
    • 5. Conclusions and Outlook
  • 13. Feed Additives for Influencing the Color of Fish and Crustaceans
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Sources of Coloring Additives
    • 3. Legal Requirements for Fish Feed
    • 4. Routine Analytical Methods for Measuring Color in Fish Flesh
    • 5. Analytical Methods Based on Differences in Color
    • 6. Outlook
  • 14. Feed Additives for Influencing Chicken Meat and Egg Yolk Color
    • 1. Definition and Measurement of Color
    • 2. Consumer Preferences of Color
    • 3. Sources for Pigmentation and Legal Approval
    • 4. Coloring Efficiency
    • 5. Metabolism of Carotenoids in Poultry
    • 6. Deposition of Carotenoids in Egg Yolk and Tissues
    • 7. Factors Affecting Yolk and Tissue Pigmentation
    • 8. Human Intake Estimates
    • 9. Conclusions

Part Four. Recent Developments and Future Perspectives

• 15. Underutilized Fruits and Vegetables as Potential Novel Pigment Sources
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Present Regulatory Hurdles and Incentives for Application of Novel Pigment Sources
  • 3. Potential Novel Natural Pigment Sources
  • 4. Conclusion
• 16. Current and Potential Natural Pigments From Microorganisms (Bacteria, Yeasts, Fungi, Microalgae)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Carotenoids
  • 3. Azaphilones
  • 4. Anthraquinones
  • 5. Phycobiliproteins
  • 6. Conclusion
• 17. Natural Solutions for Blue Colors in Food
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Spirulina
  • 3. Anthocyanins
  • 4. Genipin
  • 5. Further Potential Sources for Natural Blue Colorants
  • 6. Conclusion
• 18. The “Carmine Problem” and Potential Alternatives
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Carmine—Chemistry and Sources
  • 3. Production of Cochineal
  • 4. Problems
  • 5. Potential Substitutes and Future Trends
• 19. Improving Color Sources by Plant Breeding and Cultivation
  • 1. Introduction to Plant Breeding
  • 2. Tomato Breeding for Lycopene Content
  • 3. Beetroot Breeding for Betalain Content
  • 4. Carrot Breeding for Anthocyanin Content
  • 5. Perspectives
• 20. Recent Insights Into Health Benefits of Carotenoids
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Mechanisms of Action
• 3. Carotenoids and Diseases
• 4. Conclusions