Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies

2nd Edition - September 2, 2015
Editors: Markku Tilli, Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel, Teruaki Motooka, Veikko Lindroos
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 2 9 9 6 5 - 7
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 3 1 2 2 3 - 3

The Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies, Second Edition, is a comprehensive guide to MEMS materials, technologies, and manufacturing that examines the state… Read more

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The Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies, Second Edition,
is a comprehensive guide to MEMS materials, technologies, and manufacturing that examines the state-of-the-art with a particular emphasis on silicon as the most important starting material used in MEMS.

The book explains the fundamentals, properties (mechanical, electrostatic, optical, etc.), materials selection, preparation, manufacturing, processing, system integration, measurement, and materials characterization techniques, sensors, and multi-scale modeling methods of MEMS structures, silicon crystals, and wafers, also covering micromachining technologies in MEMS and encapsulation of MEMS components.

Furthermore, it provides vital packaging technologies and process knowledge for silicon direct bonding, anodic bonding, glass frit bonding, and related techniques, shows how to protect devices from the environment, and provides tactics to decrease package size for a dramatic reduction in costs.

List of Contributors
Preface to the Second Edition
Overview. Impact of Silicon MEMS—40 Years After
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Towards Mass Volumes of MEMS Devices
- 3 Towards Every Pocket
- 4 Mobile Phones, Smart Phones, and Tablets
- 5 Ubiquitous Sensing, Computing and Communication
- 6 Future of MEMS Technologies
- 7 Conclusions
- Acknowledgments
- References
Part I: Silicon as MEMS Material
- Chapter 1. Properties of Silicon
  - 1.1 Properties of Silicon
  - References
- Chapter 2. Czochralski Growth of Silicon Crystals
  - 2.1 The CZ Crystal-Growing Furnace
  - 2.2 Stages of Growth Process
  - 2.3 Selected Issues of Crystal Growth
  - 2.4 Improved Thermal and Gas Flow Designs
  - 2.5 Heat Transfer
  - 2.6 Melt Convection
  - 2.7 Magnetic Fields
  - 2.8 Hot Recharging and Continuous Feed
  - 2.9 Heavily n-Type Doped Silicon and Constitutional Supercooling
  - 2.10 Growth of Large Diameter Crystals
  - References
  - Further Reading
- Chapter 3. Properties of Silicon Crystals
  - 3.1 Dopants and Impurities
  - 3.2 Typical Impurity Concentrations
  - 3.3 Concentration of Dopants and Impurities in Axial Direction
  - 3.4 Resistivity
  - 3.5 Radial Variation of Impurities and Resistivity
  - 3.6 Thermal Donors
  - 3.7 Defects in Silicon Crystals
  - 3.8 Control of Vacancies, Interstitials, and the OISF Ring
  - 3.9 Oxygen Precipitation
  - 3.10 Conclusions
  - Acknowledgments
  - References
- Chapter 4. Silicon Wafers: Preparation and Properties
  - 4.1 Silicon Wafer Manufacturing Process
  - 4.2 Standard Measurements of Polished Wafers
  - 4.3 Sample Specifications of MEMS Wafers
  - 4.4 Standards of Silicon Wafers
  - References
- Chapter 5. Epi Wafers: Preparation and Properties
  - 5.1 Silicon Epitaxy for MEMS
  - 5.2 Silicon Epitaxy—The Basics
  - 5.3 The Epi-Poly Process
  - 5.4 Etch Stop Layers
  - 5.5 Epi on SOI Substrates
  - 5.6 Selective Epitaxy and Epitaxial Layer Overgrowth
  - 5.7 Considerations for Chemical Mechanical Polishing
  - 5.8 Metrology
  - 5.9 Commercially Available Epitaxy Systems
  - 5.10 Summary
  - References
- Chapter 6. Thin Films on Silicon
  - Chapter 6.1 Thin Films on Silicon: Silicon Dioxide
  - Chapter 6.2 Thin Films on Silicon: Silicon Nitride
  - Chapter 6.3 Thin Films on Silicon: Poly-SiGe for MEMS-Above-CMOS Applications
  - Chapter 6.4 Thin Films on Silicon: ALD
  - Further Reading
  - Chapter 6.5 Piezoelectric Thin Film Materials for MEMS
  - Chapter 6.6 Metallic Glass Thin Films
- Chapter 7. Thick-Film SOI Wafers: Preparation and Properties
  - 7.1 Introduction
  - 7.2 Overview of SOI
  - 7.3 Silicon Wafer Parameters for Direct Bonding
  - 7.4 Fabrication of Thick-Film BSOI by Mechanical Grinding and Polishing
  - 7.5 BESOI Process
  - 7.6 Techniques Based on Thin-Film SOI and Silicon Epitaxy
  - 7.7 SOI Wafers with Buried Cavities
  - 7.8 SOI Wafers with Buried ALD Thin Film
  - 7.9 Conclusions
  - References
Part II: Modeling in MEMS
- Chapter 8. Multiscale Modeling Methods
  - 8.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Equations
  - 8.2 Computational Methods
  - 8.3 First Principles Calculation Method
  - 8.4 Concluding Remarks
  - References
- Chapter 9. Mechanical Properties of Silicon Microstructures
  - 9.1 Basic Structural Properties of Crystalline Silicon
  - 9.2 Dislocations in Silicon
  - 9.3 Physical Mechanisms of Fracture in Silicon
  - 9.4 Physical Mechanisms of Fatigue of Silicon
  - References
- Chapter 10. Electrostatic and RF-Properties of MEMS Structures
  - 10.1 Introduction
  - 10.2 Model System for a Dynamic Micromechanical Device
  - 10.3 Electrical Equivalent Circuit
  - 10.4 Electrostatic Force
  - 10.5 Electromechanical Coupling
  - 10.6 Sensing of Motion
  - 10.7 Pull-in Phenomenon
  - 10.8 Parasitic Capacitance
  - 10.9 Effect of Built-in Potential on Capacitively Coupled MEMS-Devices
  - 10.10 Further Effects of Electrostatic Nonlinearities from Applications Point of View
  - 10.11 Application Example: Capacitively Coupled Reference Oscillator
  - 10.12 RF-Properties
  - 10.13 Acknowledgments
  - References
- Chapter 11. Optical Modeling of MEMS
  - 11.1 Introduction
  - 11.2 Optical Properties of Silicon and Related Materials
  - 11.3 Theoretical Background
  - 11.4 Numerical Modeling Methods for Optical MEMS
  - References
- Chapter 12. Modeling of Silicon Etching
  - 12.1 Introduction
  - 12.2 Requirements for Modeling Micromachining
  - 12.3 Micromachining as a Front Propagation Problem
  - 12.4 Anisotropic Etching: Geometrical Simulators
  - 12.5 Anisotropic Etching: Atomistic Simulators
  - 12.6 A Survey of Etching Simulators
  - References
- Chapter 13. Gas Damping in Vibrating MEMS Structures
  - 13.1 Introduction
  - 13.2 Damping Dominated by Gas Viscosity
  - 13.3 First-Order Frequency Dependencies
  - 13.4 Viscoacoustic Models
  - 13.5 Simulation Tools
  - References
Part III: Measuring MEMS
- Chapter 14. Introduction to Measuring MEMS
  - 14.1 On MEMS Measurements
  - 14.2 Variation and Mapping
  - 14.3 MEMS Measurement Challenges
  - References
- Chapter 15. Silicon Wafer and Thin Film Measurements
  - 15.1 Important Measurements
  - 15.2 Wafer Shape
  - 15.3 Resistivity
  - 15.4 Thickness of Thin Films
  - References
- Chapter 16. Optical Measurement of Static and Dynamic Displacement in MEMS
  - 16.1 Camera-Based Measurements
  - References
- Chapter 17. MEMS Residual Stress Characterization: Methodology and Perspective
  - 17.1 Introduction
  - 17.2 MEMS Residual Stress Characterization Techniques
  - 17.3 Perspective and Conclusion
  - References
- Chapter 18. Strength of Bonded Interfaces
  - 18.1 Introduction
  - 18.2 Solid Mechanics
  - 18.3 Double Cantilever Beam Test Method
  - 18.4 Tensile Test Method
  - 18.5 Blister Test Method
  - 18.6 Chevron Test Structures
  - 18.7 Non-Destructive Bond Strength Testing of Anodic Bonded Wafers
  - 18.8 Summary and Outlook
  - References
- Chapter 19. Oxygen and Bulk Microdefects in Silicon
  - 19.1 Measuring Oxygen in Silicon
  - 19.2 Measuring Bulk Microdefects
  - References
Part IV: Micromachining Technologies in MEMS
- Chapter 20. MEMS Lithography
  - 20.1 Lithography Considerations Before Wafer Processing
  - 20.2 Wafers in Lithography Process
  - 20.3 Processing After Lithography
  - 20.4 Thick Photoresist Lithography
  - 20.5 Special Lithography Approaches
  - References
- Chapter 21. Deep Reactive Ion Etching
  - 21.1 Etch Chemistries
  - 21.2 Equipment
  - 21.3 DRIE Processes
  - 21.4 DRIE Advanced Issues and Challenges
  - 21.5 DRIE Applications
  - 21.6 Post-DRIE Etch Treatments
  - 21.7 Choosing Between Wet and Dry Etching
  - References
- Chapter 22. Wet Etching of Silicon
  - 22.1 Basic Description of Anisotropic Etching: Faceting
  - 22.2 Beyond Faceting: Atomistic Phenomena
  - 22.3 Beyond Atomistics: Electrochemistry
  - 22.4 Typical Surface Morphologies (I. Zubel and Miguel A. Gosálvez)
  - 22.5 Effects from Silicon Wafer Features (Eeva Viinikka)
  - 22.6 Convex Corner Undercutting
  - 22.7 Examples of Wet Etching
  - 22.8 Popular Wet Etchants
  - 22.9 Temperature Dependence of the Etch Rate
  - 22.10 Concentration Dependence of the Etch Rate
  - 22.11 Other Variables Affecting the Etch-Rate Values
  - 22.12 Experimental Determination of Etch Rates
  - 22.13 Converting Between Different Measures of Concentration
  - References
- Chapter 23. Porous Silicon Based MEMS
  - 23.1 Porous Silicon Background
  - 23.2 PS Sacrificial Layer Technologies
  - 23.3 PS Fabrication Technology
  - 23.4 Microscopic Processes Underlying PS Formation
  - 23.5 Formation of Silicon Microstructures
  - 23.6 Application Examples
  - 23.7 Summary and Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 24. Surface Micromachining
  - 24.1 Polycrystalline Silicon-Based Micromachining
  - 24.2 Integration Concepts
  - 24.3 Metallic MEMS
  - 24.4 SOI-Wafer-Based Surface Micromachining
  - References
- Chapter 25. Vapor Phase Etch Processes for Silicon MEMS
  - 25.1 Vapor Phase Etch Technologies
  - 25.2 Vapor HF Technology for MEMS Release
  - 25.3 XeF₂ Technology for MEMS Release
  - 25.4 Applications
  - References
- Chapter 26. Inkjet Printing, Laser-Based Micromachining and Micro 3D Printing Technologies for MEMS
  - 26.1 Inkjet Printing for MEMS Fabrication
  - 26.2 3D Micromachining Using Laser Ablation
  - 26.3 3D Micromachining of Glass Using Laser-Writing and Etching
  - 26.4 3D Printing Using Micro-Laser Sintering
  - 26.5 3D Printing Based on Single-Photon Polymerization—Microstereolithography
  - 26.6 3D Printing Based on Two-Photon Polymerization—3D Direct Laser Writing
  - 26.7 3D Micromachining by Focused Ion Beam Milling
  - 26.8 3D Micromachining by Focused Ion Beam and E-Beam Assisted Deposition
  - 26.9 3D Micromachining Using Scanning Probe Lithography
  - 26.10 Emerging 3D Printing Technologies for Micro and Nanostructures
  - References
- Chapter 27. Microfluidics and BioMEMS in Silicon
  - 27.1 Silicon Properties and Machining
  - 27.2 Silicon as a Molding Master
  - 27.3 Needles and Nozzles
  - 27.4 Microreactors
  - 27.5 Silicon-Based Gas Chromatography
  - 27.6 Electrophoresis of Biomolecules in Silicon-Based Sieves
  - 27.7 Microfluidics Integration with CMOS
  - Acknowledgments
  - References
Part V: Encapsulation and Integration of MEMS
- Chapter 28. Introduction to Encapsulation and Integration of MEMS
  - 28.1 Challenges of MEMS Packaging
  - 28.2 Early Work on Bulk-MEMS Devices
  - 28.3 Hermetic Encapsulation in Surface Micromachining
  - 28.4 Purposes of Hermetic Encapsulation
  - 28.5 Wafer Bonding Methods
  - 28.6 Sealing by Film Deposition
  - 28.7 Heterogeneous Integration
  - 28.8 Via Technologies
  - 28.9 MEMS Reliability
  - References
- Chapter 29. Silicon Direct Bonding
  - 29.1 Hydrophilic High-Temperature Wafer Bonding
  - 29.2 Hydrophobic High-Temperature Bonding of Silicon
  - 29.3 Low-Temperature Direct Bonding of Silicon
  - 29.4 Direct Bonding of CVD Oxides
  - 29.5 Direct Bonding of CVD Silicon
  - References
- Chapter 30. Anodic Bonding
  - 30.1 Introduction
  - 30.2 The Mechanism of the Anodic Bonding
  - 30.3 Other Material Combinations
  - 30.4 Glasses for Anodic Bonding
  - 30.5 Bonding Parameters
  - 30.6 Bond Quality, Failure Modes, and Characterization
  - 30.7 The Thermal Residual Stress
  - 30.8 The Pressure Inside Vacuum Sealed Cavities
  - 30.9 The Effect of the Anodic Bonding on the Flexible Micromachined Structures
  - 30.10 Electrical Effects
  - 30.11 Bonding with Thin Films
  - 30.12 Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 31. Glass Frit Bonding
  - 31.1 Bonding Principle
  - 31.2 Glass Frit Materials
  - 31.3 Screen Printing
  - 31.4 Thermal Conditioning
  - 31.5 Bonding Process
  - 31.6 Physics of Bonding
  - 31.7 Characteristics
  - 31.8 Conductive Glass Frit Bonding
  - 31.9 Cost of Glass Frit Bonding
  - References
  - Further Reading
- Chapter 32. Metallic Alloy Seal Bonding
  - 32.1 Properties of Metallic Seal Bonds
  - 32.2 Metal Systems and Joint Design
  - 32.3 Soft Soldering
  - 32.4 Eutectic Bonding
  - 32.5 TLP Bonding
  - 32.6 Thermocompression Bonding
  - 32.7 Ultra-Thin Metal Film Bonding
  - 32.8 Reaction Bonding
  - 32.9 Metallic Seal Ring Design and Process Technology
  - References
- Chapter 33. Bonding of CMOS Processed Wafers
  - 33.1 General Aspects, Requirements, and Limitations of CMOS-Compatible Wafer Bonding
  - 33.2 CMOS-Compatible Low-Temperature Wafer Bonding
  - 33.3 Anodic Bonding of CMOS-Processed Wafers
  - 33.4 CMOS Wafer Glass Frit Bonding
  - 33.5 Adhesive Bonding of CMOS Wafers
  - 33.6 Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 34. Wafer-Bonding Equipment
  - 34.1 Aligned Wafer-Bonding Requirements for MEMS Applications
  - 34.2 Wafer-to-Wafer Aligners
  - 34.3 Wafer Bonders
  - 34.4 Aligned Wafer Bonding: Equipment Solutions for MEMS Manufacturing
  - 34.5 The Future of Wafer Bonding Equipment Solutions for MEMS Manufacturing
  - References
- Chapter 35. Encapsulation by Film Deposition
  - 35.1 Introduction
  - 35.2 Packaging Needs
  - 35.3 Technologies and Methods
  - 35.4 Application: Encapsulated Resonators for Frequency References
  - 35.5 Summary
  - References
- Chapter 36. Dicing of MEMS Devices
  - 36.1 Introduction
  - 36.2 History of Dicing
  - 36.3 Process Flow and Methods of Dicing
  - 36.4 Stealth Dicing
  - 36.5 Full-Cut Dicing
  - 36.6 Effects of Dicing
  - 36.7 Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 37. 3D Integration of MEMS
  - 37.1 Introduction
  - 37.2 The Three Levels of MEMS Packaging
  - 37.3 Cavity Formation
  - 37.4 From Cavities to Surface Mountable Devices
  - 37.5 From Device Packaging to SiP and 3D
  - 37.6 Low Stress Packaging
  - 37.7 Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 38. Via Technologies for MEMS
  - 38.1 Through-Silicon Vias (TSV)
  - 38.2 Classification of Through-Silicon Vias (TSV)
  - 38.3 Various Processing Steps in TSV Fabrication
  - 38.4 Overview of Various TSV Technologies
  - 38.5 Reliability of TSVs
  - 38.6 Future Outlook of TSVs for MEMS
  - References
- Chapter 39. Outgassing and Gettering
  - 39.1 Introduction
  - 39.2 Gas Sources into MEMS Devices
  - 39.3 Residual Gas Analysis (RGA) for MEMS
  - 39.4 Outgassing Analysis
  - 39.5 Getter Films for MEMS Devices
  - 39.6 Lifetime
  - 39.7 Conclusions
  - References
- Chapter 40. Hermeticity Tests
  - 40.1 Introduction
  - 40.2 Basics of Leakage Measurement
  - 40.3 Leakage Test Methods
  - 40.4 Getter Pumps in MEMS Packages
  - References
- Chapter 41. MEMS Reliability
  - 41.1 Classification of MEMS Devices
  - 41.2 Failure Mechanisms and Acceleration Factors
  - 41.3 Reliability of Hermetic Encapsulation
  - 41.4 Reliability Testing of MEMS Devices
  - 41.5 Methods of Failure Analysis
  - 41.6 Design for Reliability
  - 41.7 Further Reading
  - References
Appendix 1. Common Abbreviations and Acronyms
- A1.1 Definitions
- A1.2 List of Some Commonly Used MEMS Related Computational Programs
Appendix 2. Nanoindentation Characterization of Silicon and Other MEMS Materials
- A2.1 Introduction
- A2.2 Nanoindentation Method
- A2.3 Indentation in Silicon
- References
Index

Markku Tilli

Markku Tilli obtained a degree in Materials Science (Physical Metallurgy) at Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) in 1974. Until 1980 he had various research and teaching positions at HUT specializing in crystal growth technologies. From 1981 to 1984 he managed process research and development in Silicon project at HUT silicon wafer manufacturing pilot plant. Since 1985 he has had various managing positions at Okmetic in research, development and customer support areas, and held a position of Senior Vice President, Research until his retirement in 2018. His MEMS related activities started in 1982 when he developed a process to make double side polished silicon wafers for bulk micromachined sensors. Since then he has developed advanced new silicon wafer types for MEMS, including special epitaxial wafers, SOI and SOI wafers with buried cavities. His publication topics include oxygen precipitation in silicon, silicon crystal growth, wafer cleaning as well as silicon wafer manufacturing technologies and applications in MEMS. He is member of the Technology Academy of Finland and has received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science in Engineering from Aalto University.

Affiliations and expertise

Director and Senior Vice President of Research, Okmetic, Finland (retired)

Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel

Dr. Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel is professor at Aalto University School of Electrical Engineering in Finland. She studied materials science and semiconductor technology in Helsinki University of Technology, and gradudated as MSc Tech in 1990. She continued her studies in the Technical Universities of Aachen (RWTH Aachen) and Helsinki and attained her doctoral degree in 1995. After a 2-years post-doctoral appointment at the Joint Research Centre of European Commission in the Netherlands, her professional career continued in the electronics industry. She was a Staff Principal Engineer at Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector in Munich. In 2004 Paulasto-Kröckel joined Infineon Technologies where she was the Director Package Development responsible for semiconductor assembly and interconnect development for automotive products worldwide. At the end of 2018 Dr. Paulasto-Kröckel became a professor at Helsinki University of Technology, which is now called Aalto University after a merger with two other leading universities in the Helsinki area. Her current research focus is on advanced materials and interconnect technologies for MEMS/NEMS and power electronics, as well as multi-material assemblies behavior under different loads and their characteristic failure mechanisms. Her group has extensive experience in studying interactions and interfacial reactions between dissimilar materials, such as different oxide and nitride materials, metals and semiconductors. The group has developed a combined methodology approach to solve multi-materials compatibility issues in microelectronics and microsystems. Prof. Paulasto-Kröckel has over 110 international publications in the fields of microelectronics packaging and interfacial compatibility of dissimilar materials. She is IEEE EPS Distinguished Lecturer and a member of the Finnish Academy of Technical Sciences.

Affiliations and expertise

Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Finland

Teruaki Motooka

Teruaki Motooka received PhD degree in 1981 in Applied Physics from Kyushu University. He was a research scientist in the Central Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd. for 1971-1984, a visiting research assistant professor at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA for 1984-1988, an associate professor in the Institute of Applied Physics at University of Tsukuba, Japan for 1988-1993, and became a full professor at Kyushu University in 1993. He retired from Kyushu University in 2010. He has published more than 150 scientific papers on various international journals and these papers have been cited more than 2000 times.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor Emeritus, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan

Veikko Lindroos

Veikko Lindroos is Professor Emeritus, Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, Aalto University, Finland. His research covers a broad spectrum of materials science and technology, such as metallic materials, silicon technology and MEMS materials magnetic, electronic and composite materials as well as shape memory effect and materials.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor Emeritus, Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, Aalto University, Finland

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Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies

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Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Markku Tilli

Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel

Teruaki Motooka

Veikko Lindroos