Handbook of Recycling

State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists

2nd Edition - October 17, 2023
Editors: Christina Meskers, Ernst Worrell, Markus A. Reuter
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 8 5 5 1 4 - 3
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 8 6 0 1 3 - 0

Handbook of Recycling, Second Edition is an authoritative review of the current state of recycling, reuse and reclamation processes commonly implemented today, and how they intera… Read more

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Handbook of Recycling, Second Edition is an authoritative review of the current state of recycling, reuse and reclamation processes commonly implemented today, and how they interact with one another. Fully updated to cover recent developments in the field, this second edition has also been restructured to cover general aspects of recycling, applications, technology, recovery and collection, economics, governance and policy. Several new chapters on global recycled material flows, sludges, reinforced plastics, and landfill mining have been added. It concludes with a review of the policy and economic implications, including the impact of recycling on energy use, sustainable development, and the environment.

This book is a crucial aid to students and researchers in a range of disciplines, from materials and environmental science to public policy studies.

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
Part 1: Recycling in context
Chapter 1: Introduction
Abstract
1.1: The Challenges
1.2: The Role of Materials in Society
1.3: From Linear to Circular Economy
1.4: Recycling in the Circular Economy
1.5: The Book
References
Chapter 2: The fundamental limits of circularity quantified by digital twinning
Abstract
2.1: Introduction
2.2: A Product and Material Focus on Recycling Within the CE
2.3: Digital Twinning of the CE System: Understanding the Opportunities and Limits
2.4: Opportunities and Challenges
References
Chapter 3: Maps of the physical economy to inform sustainability strategies
Abstract
Acknowledgments
3.1: Introduction
3.2: Dimensions of MFA
3.3: Components for Monitoring the Physical Economy
3.4: Application of the Framework: Maps of the Aluminum Cycle
3.5: Recommendations
References
Chapter 4: Material efficiency—Squaring the circular economy: Recycling within a hierarchy of material management strategies
Abstract
4.1: Is a Circular Economy Possible or Desirable?
4.2: Hierarchies of Material Conservation
4.3: When Is Recycling Not the Answer?
4.4: Discussion
References
Chapter 5: Material and product-centric recycling: design for recycling rules and digital methods
Abstract
Acknowledgements
5.1: Introduction
5.2: Recyclability Index and Ecolabeling of Products
5.3: DfR Rules and Guidelines
5.4: Product-Centric Recycling
5.5: Examples of Recycling System Simulation
5.6: Summary
5.7: Future Challenges
References
Additional Reading
Chapter 6: Developments in collection of municipal waste
Abstract
6.1: Introduction
6.2: Definitions and Models
6.3: A Global Picture of SWM
6.4: Collection and Recovery Systems
6.5: Future Developments
6.6: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 7: The path to inclusive recycling: Developing countries and the informal sector
Abstract
7.1: Introduction
7.2: Definition and Links With the Formal Sector
7.3: Informal Waste Tire Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities
7.4: Approaches Towards Inclusive Recycling
7.5: Policies and Standardization Developments for Inclusive Recycling
7.6: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Part 2: Recycling from a product perspective
Chapter 8: Physical separation
Abstract
8.1: Introduction
8.2: Properties and Property Spaces
8.3: Breakage
8.4: Particle Size Classification
8.5: Gravity Separation
8.6: Flotation
8.7: Magnetic Separation
8.8: Eddy Current Separation
8.9: Electrostatic Separation
8.10: Sorting
8.11: Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Sensor-based sorting
Abstract
9.1: Mechanical Treatment of Waste
9.2: Principle of Sensor-Based Sorting
9.3: Requirements for Optimal Sorting Results
9.4: Available Sensors
9.5: Application of Different Sensors in Recycling
9.6: Recent Developments
9.7: Outlook
References
Chapter 10: Mixed bulky waste
Abstract
10.1: Introduction
10.2: The Circular Process for Mixed Bulky Waste
10.3: Conditions for Economically Viable Sorting
10.4: Sorting of Mixed Bulky Waste
10.5: Sorting Process
10.6: Recycling Efficiency
10.7: Conclusion and Outlook
Reference
Chapter 11: Packaging
Abstract
11.1: Introduction
11.2: Packaging Waste
11.3: Composition
11.4: Recovery and Recycling
11.5: Collection and Recovery Schemes
11.6: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 12: End-of-life vehicles
Abstract
12.1: Introduction
12.2: Vehicle Composition
12.3: Recycling Chain
12.4: Recycling of Automotive parts
12.5: Recycling of Automotive Fluids
12.6: Automotive Shredder Residue
12.7: Future Developments and Outlook
12.8: Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
Abstract
13.1: Introduction
13.2: Waste Characterization
13.3: Recycling Chain and Technologies
13.4: Future Developments
13.5: Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Photovoltaic and wind energy equipment
Abstract
14.1: Introduction
14.2: Wind Turbines
14.3: Photovoltaic Modules
14.4: Wind Turbine Recycling
14.5: PV Recycling
14.6: Future Developments
14.7: Key Issues and Challenges
14.8: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 15: Buildings
Abstract
15.1: The Why: Buildings and Circularity
15.2: The How and Who: A Framework
15.3: The When: Shearing Layers
15.4: The What: Materials in Buildings
15.5: Improving Data on Materials
15.6: The How, Who, When, and What
15.7: Outlook
References
Chapter 16: Construction and demolition waste
Abstract
Acknowledgments
16.1: Introduction
16.2: C&D Waste Use
16.3: Recycling
16.4: Recycling Technologies and Practice
16.5: Future Developments
16.6: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 17: Industrial by-products
Abstract
17.1: Waste, By-product, or Product?
17.2: Major By-products
17.3: Where and How to Use By-products
17.4: Technical and Environmental Requirements
17.5: Sustainability Aspects
17.6: Conclusions, Challenges, and Outlook
References
Chapter 18: Mine tailings
Abstract
18.1: Introduction
18.2: Future Opportunities for Tailings Management
18.3: Main Drivers for Change
18.4: Emerging Technologies
18.5: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Further Reading
Part 3: Recycling from a material perspective
Chapter 19: Steel
Abstract
19.1: Introduction
19.2: Use Phase and Recycling Examples
19.3: Classification of Steel Scrap
19.4: Requirements for Scrap
19.5: Treatment Process
19.6: Steel Scrap Smelting Process
19.7: Steel
19.8: Alloy or Tramp Elements?
19.9: Purification of Scrap
19.10: Outlook
References
Further Reading
Chapter 20: Aluminum
Abstract
20.1: Introduction
20.2: Alloys and Their Recycling
20.3: Melt Loss
20.4: Used Beverage Can (UBC) Recycling
20.5: Wheel Recycling
20.6: Dross Processing
20.7: Purification and Refining
20.8: Future Trends and Challenges
References
Chapter 21: Copper
Abstract
21.1: Sources of Copper Scrap
21.2: Smelting and Refining of Copper Scrap
21.3: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Further Reading
Chapter 22: Lead
Abstract
22.1: Introduction
22.2: Material Use
22.3: The Lead-Acid Battery
22.4: Recycling Technologies
22.5: Future Developments
22.6: Key Issues and Challenges
References
Chapter 23: Zinc
Abstract
23.1: Introduction
23.2: Recycling Technologies
23.3: Key Issues and Challenges
References
Chapter 24: Ferroalloy elements
Abstract
24.1: Introduction
24.2: Use and Recycling
24.3: Recycling of Residues
24.4: Conclusion
References
Chapter 25: Precious and technology metals
Abstract
25.1: Introduction
25.2: Applications
25.3: Scrap Types and Quantities
25.4: Recycling Technologies
25.5: Future Challenges
25.6: Conclusions and Outlook
Further reading
References
Chapter 26: Concrete and aggregates
Abstract
Acknowledgment
26.1: Introduction
26.2: Waste Flows
26.3: Recovery Rates
26.4: Recycled Aggregate Concrete Applications
26.5: Concrete Recycling Technologies
26.6: Future Developments
26.7: Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Cementitious binders incorporating residues
Abstract
27.1: Introduction
27.2: Clinker Production: Process, and Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials
27.3: From Clinker to Cement: Residues in Blended Cements
27.4: Alternative Cements With Lower Environmental Footprint
27.5: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 28: Glass
Abstract
28.1: Introduction
28.2: Types of Glass
28.3: Manufacturing
28.4: Recovery for Reuse and Recycling
28.5: Reuse
28.6: Closed-Loop Recycling
28.7: Open-Loop Recycling
28.8: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 29: Lumber
Abstract
29.1: Introduction
29.2: Wood Material Uses
29.3: Postuse Wood Recovery for Recycling
29.4: Postuse Wood Recycling
29.5: Case Study Scenarios
29.6: Future Developments
29.7: Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 30: Paper
Abstract
30.1: Introduction
30.2: Collection and Utilization
30.3: Collection and Sorting Systems
30.4: Stock Preparation
30.5: Key Issues and Future Challenges
References
Further Reading
Chapter 31: Plastic recycling
Abstract
31.1: Introduction
31.2: Use
31.3: Recycling
31.4: Mechanical Recycling
31.5: Chemical Recycling
31.6: Impact of Recycling
31.7: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Further Reading
Chapter 32: Black rubber products
Abstract
32.1: Introduction
32.2: Mechanical Rubber Good (MRGs)
32.3: Rubber tires
32.4: Recycling of tires
32.5: Circular Economy of Tires
References
A selection of academic journal papers to open the door to a vast body of information
Further Reading
Chapter 33: Textiles
Abstract
33.1: Introduction
33.2: The Recycling Process
33.3: Secondhand Clothing
33.4: Vintage Collectibles
33.5: Conversion to New Products
33.6: Conversion of Mattresses
33.7: Conversion of Carpet
33.8: Landfill and Incineration
33.9: Circular Economy
33.10: Outlook
Recommended Reading
References
Chapter 34: Carbon fibers
Abstract
34.1: Introduction
34.2: Material Use
34.3: Recycling
34.4: Recycling Technologies
34.5: Applications of rCF
34.6: Future Developments and Challenges
34.7: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Part 4: Recycling and the circular economy
Chapter 35: From waste management to circular economy—The role of recycling in policy
Abstract
35.1: Introduction
35.2: A Brief History of Waste Management
35.3: Integrating Recycling in Waste Management Policy Design
References
Chapter 36: Geopolitics of resources and recycling
Abstract
36.1: Introduction
36.2: Scarcity
36.3: Criticality
36.4: Recycling in the Geopolitical Context
36.5: Outlook
References
Chapter 37: Information and communication
Abstract
37.1: Introduction
37.2: Target Groups
37.3: Communication Tools
37.4: Messaging: Information and Communication
37.5: Conclusion
References
Chapter 38: Recycling, law, and the circular economy
Abstract
38.1: Introduction
38.2: Regulating Recycling to Foster a Circular Economy
38.3: Legal Instruments Fostering Recycling
38.4: Legal Requirements That May Hamper Recycling
38.5: Concluding Remarks
References
Directives
Regulations
Implementing Decisions
Jurisprudence
Chapter 39: Extended producer responsibility
Abstract
39.1: Introduction
39.2: Defining EPR
39.3: Current Practice of EPR
39.4: Effectiveness
39.5: The Future of EPR and Circular Economy?
References
Further Reading
Chapter 40: Exploring the economics of recycling in a dynamic global context
Abstract
40.1: Introduction
40.2: Economic Trends and Drivers
40.3: Environmental and Social Costs and Benefits
40.4: Economic Instruments
40.5: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 41: Economic policy instruments
Abstract
41.1: Introduction
41.2: Criteria to Compare Policy Instruments
41.3: Basic Environmental Policy Instruments Aimed at Stimulating Recycling
41.4: Empirical Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Policy Instruments to Stimulate Recycling
41.5: Incentives for Upstream Green Product Design
41.6: Multiproduct and Mixed Waste Streams
41.7: EPR and Recycling Certificates
41.8: Durable Goods
41.9: Imperfect Competition in Product, Recycling, and Remanufacturing Markets
41.10: Policy Instruments in an International Market for Waste and Materials
41.11: Recycling and Nonrenewable Resources in a Macroeconomic Perspective
41.12: Conclusion
References
Chapter 42: Economic aspects of metal recycling
Abstract
42.1: Introduction
42.2: General Principles of Recycling Economics
42.3: Income Perspective
42.4: Cost Perspective
42.5: Current and Future Challenges
42.6: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Part 5: Recycling fundamentals
Chapter 43: Physical separation fundamentals
Abstract
43.1: Particle Size
43.2: Sampling
43.3: Liberation
43.4: Grade-Recovery Curves
43.5: Mass Balances and Process Dynamics
43.6: Material Balancing
43.7: Mechanical Operations
43.8: Conclusion
References
Chapter 44: Thermodynamics
Abstract
44.1: Metals Use and Availability
44.2: Recycling: An Energy Issue
44.3: Recycling: An Entropy Issue
44.4: Reaction Equilibrium
44.5: Stability of Compounds
44.6: The Carbon Tragedy
44.7: H2: An Alternative Reducer
44.8: Very Stable Oxides
44.9: Solutions and Purity Levels
44.10: Conclusions
References
Chapter 45: Exergy—Quantification of resource dissipation
Abstract
45.1: Introduction
45.2: What Is Exergy?
45.3: Thermoeconomics
45.4: Applications in Industrial Processes
45.5: Conclusion
References
Chapter 46: Process simulation—Thermodynamics and process technology to understand recycling systems
Abstract
46.1: Introduction
46.2: Methodology
46.3: Information From Simulation Models
46.4: Applications
46.5: Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 47: Life cycle assessment (LCA)
Abstract
47.1: Introduction
47.2: Life Cycle Assessment—key Concepts
47.3: Product-Oriented, Attributional LCA
47.4: Process-oriented, Attributional LCA
47.5: End-of-Life Treatment in the LCA Context
47.6: Recycling Cases
47.7: c-Si Scrap and PV Module Recycling
47.8: Conclusions and Outlook
References
Index

Christina Meskers

Christina Meskers, Ph.D. is senior research scientist at SINTEF, in the Industrial eco-systems department. Prior to this, she was senior advisor at the Industrial Ecology programme of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (2021-2022), and senior manager open innovation, and market intelligence & business research at Umicore, Belgium. She graduated from Delft University of Technology with degrees in resource engineering and materials science. Christina has a passion for innovation and strategy, connecting people and ideas across disciplines, industries, organisations and value chains. Her work focuses on the contribution of metals and materials industry to the transition to sustainable products and a sustainable society. She has over 15 years of experience in the (raw) materials sector, including co-authoring a United Nations' International Resource Panel report on recycling (2013), and contributing to Principles of metal refining & recycling (2021), as well as organizing numerous symposia. She served on the advisory boards of international master programs, innovation networks, the Board of Directors of The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (2020-2023), and is associate editor of the Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. Christina was a 2020 Brimacombe Medalist and awarded the TMS Young Leaders Professional Development Award (2008).

Affiliations and expertise

Senior research scientist, SINTEF Manufacturing AS, Trondheim, Norway; Senior adviser, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, NTNU—Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Ernst Worrell

Ernst Worrell (Ph.D.) is professor of ‘Energy, Resources & Technological Change’ at Utrecht University in the Copernicus Institute. His research focuses on the technical, economic and policy aspects of the energy-resource nexus, including energy, material, and resource efficiency improvement, as well as waste management and processing. The research includes the transition to a circular economy working on recycling and material efficiency. He has led the industrial energy assessment work at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory until 2008 and was Director Energy Use & Efficiency at the sustainable energy consulting company Ecofys between 2004 and 2010. He is (co-) author of over 300 publications, of which over 200 peer-reviewed articles. He was until 2013, for 12 years Editor-in-Chief of the peer-reviewed journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling, and also serves as associate editor of Energy, the International Journal and of Energy Efficiency.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor, Energy, Resources and Technological Change, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Markus A. Reuter

Markus A. Reuter is with SMS Group in Düsseldorf, Germany. Prior to holding this position, Reuter was director at Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology; chief technologist, Ausmelt Australia; and director of technology management, Outotec (now Metso) Australia and Finland. He also worked at Mintek & Anglo American Corporation both in South Africa. In addition, he has served as a full professor at TU Delft in the Netherlands and the University of Melbourne in Australia, and has held honorary and adjunct professorships at Aalto University in Finland, at Central South University in China, and presently ongoing positions at TU Bergakademie Freiberg in Germany, as well as Curtin University Perth in Australia. He holds honorary doctorates from the University of Liège in Belgium and the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa; D.Eng. & Ph.D. degrees from Stellenbosch University; and a Dr. habil. from RWTH Aachen in Germany. Recent honors include receiving The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) TMS Extraction & Processing Division Distinguished Lecture Award in 2016, delivering the TMS Extraction & Processing Division (EPD) and Light Metals Luncheon Lectures in 2020 & 2022 respectively, receiving 3 TMS Science Awards in 2022 & 2014 and as well as receiving an Outotec Technology award in 2014.

Affiliations and expertise

Chief Expert, SMS Group, Düsseldorf, Germany; Adjunct Professor, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

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Handbook of Recycling

State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists

Purchase options

Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Christina Meskers

Ernst Worrell

Markus A. Reuter