Handbook of Hygiene Control in the Food Industry

Chapter 1. The Starting Point: What Is Food Hygiene?

• Abstract
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 What Is Food Hygiene?
• 1.3 Historical Developments
• 1.4 Concept of Food Safety and Its Definition
• 1.5 Management of Food Safety and Hygiene: A Shared Responsibility
• 1.6 Food Hygiene Today and Outlook
• References

Part I: Management of Hazards and Risks

Chapter 2. Consumer Perceptions of Risks From Food

• Abstract
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Risk Perceptions of Consumers Are Not the Same as Technical Risk Assessments
• 2.3 Risk Perception and Barriers to Effective Risk Communication
• 2.4 Developing an Effective Risk Communication Strategy
• 2.5 Application of Combined Consumer Behavior: Food Safety Studies
• 2.6 The Need for More Intensive Cooperation Between Natural and Social Scientists
• 2.7 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 3. HACCP

• Abstract
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 HACCP and FSMS
• 3.3 HACCP in Practice: Development, Implementation, and Maintenance
• 3.4 HACCP and the Law: Meeting Legal Requirements and Responsibilities
• 3.5 Benefits and Opportunities: Using HACCP Techniques for Improvement
• 3.6 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 4. The Range of Microbial Risks in Food Processing

• Abstract
• 4.1 Introduction: The Risk of Microbial Foodborne Disease
• 4.2 Microorganisms Responsible for Foodborne Diseases
• 4.3 Related Products
• 4.4 The Control of Food Safety
• 4.5 Using Food Safety Objectives to Manage Microbial Risks
• 4.6 Cooperation in the Supply Chain to Achieve Food Safety Objectives
• 4.7 Quantitative Methods
• 4.8 Quantification of Recontamination
• 4.9 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 5. Biofilm Risks

• Abstract
• 5.1 Biofilm Formation and Detection
• 5.2 Pathogens in Biofilms
• 5.3 Persistent and Nonpersistent Microbial Contamination in Food Processing
• 5.4 Prevention of Biofilm Formation and Biofilm Removal
• 5.5 Future Trends and Advice in Biofilm Control for the Food Industry
• References

Chapter 6. Aerosols as a Contamination Risk

• Abstract
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Important Factors
• 6.3 Aerosol Generation
• 6.4 Aerosol Dispersal
• 6.5 Ways to Reduce the Risk from Airborne Contamination
• 6.6 Future Trends
• 6.7 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 7. Chemical Hazards

• Abstract
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Risk Management of Chemical Hazards: Principles
• 7.3 Inherent Toxicants
• 7.4 Contaminants of Natural Origin
• 7.5 Primary Production
• 7.6 Contaminants Arising During Food Manufacture
• 7.7 Issues Associated with Criminally Related Activities
• 7.8 Discussion
• References

Chapter 8. Food Safety Management: State of the Art

• Abstract
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Food Safety Definition and Concept
• 8.3 Management of Food Safety in Food Industry Operations
• 8.4 Change Management
• 8.5 Management Commitment, Human Resource Management, and Organizational Culture
• 8.6 Conclusions
• Acknowledgment
• References

Chapter 9. Risk Assessment in Hygiene Management

• Abstract
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Quality Management and Risk Assessment
• 9.3 Examples of Risk Assessments
• 9.4 Future Trends
• 9.5 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 10. Managing Risks from Allergenic Residues

• Abstract
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Food Allergy and Product Safety
• 10.3 Management of Food Allergy Risks
• 10.4 Role of Allergen Detection and Other Considerations
• 10.5 Future Trends
• References

Chapter 11. Managing Contamination Risks From Packaging Materials

• Abstract
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Interactions Between FP, Foods, and the Environment
• 11.3 Main Contamination Hazards in Food Due to FP
• 11.4 Regulatory Aspects
• 11.5 FP Hygiene and Safety Management Systems
• 11.6 Conclusions and Trends
• List of Acronyms
• Websites of Interest
• References

Chapter 12. Improving the Control of Insects in Food Processing

• Abstract
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 The Grain Bulk as an Ecosystem
• 12.3 Moisture Migration in the Grain Bulk
• 12.4 Dry- and Wet-Grain Heating
• 12.5 Insects in Stored Products
• 12.6 Inspection and Monitoring
• 12.7 Physical and Chemical Control Measures
• 12.8 Reducing the Time of Phosphine Treatment by Using Speedbox
• 12.9 Future Trends
• Bibliography

Chapter 13. Managing the Risks of Food Intended for Consumption by Religious Consumers

• Abstract
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Food Safety and Hygiene in the Context of Religion
• 13.3 Risks
• 13.4 Risk Management
• 13.5 Conclusion
• Acknowledgments
• Further Reading

Chapter 14. Food Hygiene and Food Workers: From Complacency to Compliance

• Abstract
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Food Hygiene Training: Limitations of a Knowledge-Provision Approach
• 14.3 Employing a Psychological Perspective to Understand Food Hygiene Behavior
• 14.4 The Role of Workplace Environment and Culture in Complacency and Compliance
• 14.5 Conclusion
• References

Chapter 15. Hygiene Requirements in Food Service

• Abstract
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.2 Hazard Control Plan
• 15.3 Barriers
• 15.4 Harborage
• 15.5 Cross-Contamination Vectors
• 15.6 Cleaning and Disinfection
• References

Chapter 16. The Use of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

• Abstract
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.2 Components of SOPs and SOP Programs
• 16.3 SOP Requirements Under Regulatory Programs
• 16.4 Common Problems in Implementing SOPs Effectively
• 16.5 Sources of Further Information
• References

Part II: Plant and Equipment

Chapter 17. Global Overview of Legislation, Statutes, Standards, and Guidelines Impacting Hygienic Design

• Abstract
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Leading International Standards Organizations
• 17.3 Leading Regional Standards Organizations
• 17.4 Leading National Governmental Organizations
• 17.5 Leading Industry Organizations
• 17.6 Leading Hygienic Design Standards Organizations
• 17.7 Conclusion
• 17.8 Summary
• Further Reading

Chapter 18. The Hygienic Design of Closed Equipment

• Abstract
• 18.1 Introduction: The Hygienic Performance of Closed Equipment
• 18.2 The Importance of Flow Parameters in Hygienic Performance
• 18.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics Models for Optimizing Hygiene
• 18.4 Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Improved Hygienic Design
• 18.5 Future Trends
• 18.6 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 19. Hygienic Design of Heating Equipment

• Abstract
• 19.1 Introduction
• 19.2 Heat Exchanger Design
• 19.3 Developments in Heat Exchanger Design
• 19.4 Future Trends
• 19.5 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 20. Hygienic Design of Air-Blast Freezing Systems

• Abstract
• 20.1 Introduction
• 20.2 Industrial Air-Blast Freezing Systems
• 20.3 Types of Air-Blast Freezers
• 20.4 Legislation, Standards, and Guidelines Covering Hygienic Design
• 20.5 Materials of Construction
• 20.6 Basic Hygienic Design Requirements
• 20.7 Hygienic Design of Freezer Equipment Components
• 20.8 Defrosting
• 20.9 Cleaning
• 20.10 Conclusion
• References

Chapter 21. Hygienic Design of Equipment in Handling Dry Materials

• Abstract
• 21.1 Introduction: Principles of Hygienic Design
• 21.2 Dry Particulate Materials
• 21.3 Cleaning
• 21.4 Some Design Principles
• 21.5 Typical Equipment in the Dry Material Handling Area
• 21.6 Improving Hygiene in Processing Powders
• References

Chapter 22. Hygienic Design of Packaging Equipment

• Abstract
• 22.1 Introduction
• 22.2 Definitions
• 22.3 Choice of a Packaging Machine
• 22.4 Hygienic Design of the Packaging Machine
• 22.5 Conclusion
• Sources

Chapter 23. Improving the Hygienic Design of Valves

• Abstract
• 23.1 Introduction
• 23.2 Valve Types
• 23.3 Hygienic Aspects of Valve Design
• 23.4 Current Guidelines and Standards
• Further Reading

Chapter 24. Improving the Hygienic Design of Pipes

• Abstract
• 24.1 Introduction
• 24.2 Piping Design: Good Practice
• 24.3 Materials of Construction
• 24.4 Product Recovery
• 24.5 Microbial Growth in Piping Systems
• 24.6 Future Plant Design
• References

Chapter 25. The Hygienic Design of Pumps

• Abstract
• 25.1 Introduction: Types of Pump Used in Food Processing
• 25.2 Components Used in Pumps
• 25.3 Cleanability, Surface Finish, and Other Requirements
• 25.4 Materials and Motor Design
• 25.5 Summary
• References

Chapter 26. Hygienic Design of Fish Processing Equipment

• Abstract
• 26.1 Introduction
• 26.2 Steps and Aspects of Fish Processing
• 26.3 Equipment
• 26.4 Conclusion
• 26.5 Sources of Further Information and Future Trends
• References

Chapter 27. Conveyors Used in the Food Industry

• Abstract
• 27.1 Introduction
• 27.2 General Design Rules
• 27.3 Materials of Construction
• 27.4 Hygienic Design for Conveyor Belts and Accessories Thereto
• 27.5 Belting Typology
• 27.6 General Profile of Food-Grade Conveyor Belts
• 27.7 Cleanability
• 27.8 Service/Maintenance
• 27.9 Scrapers
• 27.10 Mechanical Joints
• 27.11 Bearing Surfaces
• 27.12 Belt Lifters and Swivel-Mounted Rollers
• 27.13 Drum Motors
• References

Chapter 28. Improving Hygiene in Food Transportation

• Abstract
• 28.1 Introduction
• 28.2 Legislation
• 28.3 Implementation of the Current Legislation
• 28.4 Examples
• 28.5 Temperature Management
• 28.6 Avoiding Cross-Contamination
• 28.7 Future Trends
• Acknowledgments
• References

Chapter 29. Specific Requirements for Equipment for Aseptic Processing

• Abstract
• 29.1 Introduction
• 29.2 Specific Requirements for Disinfection
• 29.3 Specific Equipment Requirements to Prevent Recontamination
• 29.4 Aseptic Packaging
• 29.5 Package Integrity
• References

Chapter 30. Novel Materials of Construction in the Food Industry

• Abstract
• 30.1 Introduction
• 30.2 Antimicrobial Materials
• 30.3 Biopassive Polymer Materials/Coating
• 30.4 Coatings with Biopassive and Bioactive Properties
• 30.5 Ceramics
• 30.6 Conclusions
• References

Part III: Cleaning and Disinfection

Chapter 31. Cleaning of Surfaces

• Abstract
• 31.1 Introduction
• 31.2 Food-contact Surfaces
• 31.3 Cleaning Efficiency
• 31.4 Investments
• References

Chapter 32. Improving the Cleaning of Heat Exchangers

• Abstract
• 32.1 Introduction
• 32.2 Processing Effects on Fouling
• 32.3 Cleaning Food Fouling
• 32.4 Novel Approaches to Cleaning
• 32.5 Conclusions
• Acknowledgments
• References

Chapter 33. Ozone for Food Decontamination: Theory and Applications

• Abstract
• 33.1 Introduction
• 33.2 Ozone
• 33.3 Microbial Inactivation Mechanism
• 33.4 Applications of Ozone
• 33.5 Applications of Ozone on Foods at Industrial Scales
• 33.6 Health and Safety Considerations
• 33.7 Limitations
• 33.8 Conclusion and Future Trends
• 33.9 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 34. Electrolyzed Oxidizing Water for Food and Equipment Decontamination

• Abstract
• 34.1 Introduction
• 34.2 EO Water Generation Mechanism
• 34.3 Mechanism of Cleaning and Disinfecting Effect of Using EO Water
• 34.4 Applications of EO Water on Food Products
• 34.5 Applications of EO Water on Food-Processing Equipment
• 34.6 Limitations of EO Water Technology
• 34.7 Conclusions and Future Trends
• References

Chapter 35. Cleaning and Disinfection in Dry Food Processing Facilities

• Abstract
• 35.1 Introduction
• 35.2 Cleaning of Process Equipment and Process Areas Handling Dry Food Products: Objectives
• 35.3 Wet Cleaning of Dry Food-Processing Equipment
• 35.4 Wet Cleaning of Dry Material Handling Areas in the Food Factory
• 35.5 Dry Cleaning of Dry Food-Processing Equipment
• 35.6 Dry Cleaning of Dry Material Handling Areas in the Food Factory
• 35.7 Hygiene Practices During Dry Cleaning of Dry Food-Processing Equipment
• 35.8 Brushing
• 35.9 Vacuum Cleaning
• 35.10 Scraping
• 35.11 Sweeping
• 35.12 Blowing With Compressed Air
• 35.13 Cleaning With Solid Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice Blasting)
• 35.14 Cleaning With Dry Food Products
• 35.15 Dry Cleaning by Means of Plastic or Rubber Components
• 35.16 Dry Cleaning by Applying Pigs
• 35.17 Dry Disinfection Methods
• 35.18 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 36. Enzymatic Cleaning in Food Processing

• Abstract
• 36.1 Introduction
• 36.2 Enzyme-Based Cleaning Procedures
• 36.3 Laboratory Trials of Enzyme-Based Cleaning
• 36.4 Field Trials
• 36.5 Risks
• 36.6 Future Trends
• References

Chapter 37. Testing the Effectiveness of Disinfectants and Sanitizers

• Abstract
• 37.1 Introduction
• 37.2 Types of Biocidal Products
• 37.3 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Biocides/Biocidal Products/Sanitizers
• 37.4 Criteria for Testing Biocidal Action
• 37.5 Tests for Disinfectants and Sanitizers
• 37.6 Test Limitations and Scope for Improvement
• 37.7 Future Trends
• 37.8 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 38. Validating Cleaning Systems

• Abstract
• 38.1 Introduction
• 38.2 Cleaning Validation Process
• 38.3 Methods for Validation and Verification of Cleaning
• 38.4 Conclusions
• Acknowledgments
• References

Chapter 39. Bacterial Resistance to Biocides

• Abstract
• 39.1 Introduction: Pathogen Resistance to Biocides in the Food Industry and Why It Is so Important to Avoid It
• 39.2 Cleaning and Disinfection
• 39.3 Biocide Target Sites
• 39.4 Factors Influencing Biocide Efficiency
• 39.5 Resistance in Bacteria
• 39.6 Biocide Antibiotic Cross-Resistance and Coresistance
• 39.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
• 39.8 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• References

Chapter 40. Traceability of Cleaning Agents and Disinfectants

• Abstract
• 40.1 Introduction
• 40.2 Detergents and Disinfectants
• 40.3 General Issues in Tracing of Hygiene Solutions and Hygiene Products
• 40.4 The Challenge of Analyzing Detergents and Disinfectants
• 40.5 Future Trends
• References

Chapter 41. Selection, Use, and Maintenance of Manual Cleaning Equipment

• Abstract
• 41.1 Introduction
• 41.2 Selection of Cleaning Equipment
• 41.3 Cleaning Equipment Use
• 41.4 Cleaning Equipment Maintenance
• 41.5 Likely Future Trends
• 41.6 Further Information and Advice
• References

Part IV: Monitoring and Verification

Chapter 42. Testing Surface Cleanability in Food Processing

• Abstract
• 42.1 Introduction
• 42.2 Microorganisms
• 42.3 Hygienic Surfaces
• 42.4 Organic Soil
• 42.5 Future Trends
• 42.6 Sources of Further Information and Advice
• Acknowledgments
• References

Chapter 43. Monitoring of Fouling, Cleaning, and Disinfection in Closed Processing Plants

• Abstract
• 43.1 Introduction
• 43.2 Background
• 43.3 Current Approaches to Monitoring
• 43.4 Laboratory-/Pilot-Scale Studies
• 43.5 Industry Requirements and Potential Benefits
• 43.6 Future Trends
• 43.7 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 44. Surface Sampling and the Detection of Contamination

• Abstract
• 44.1 Introduction
• 44.2 Managing Cleaning and the Role of Surface Sampling
• 44.3 Nonmicrobiological Surface Sampling
• 44.4 Microbiological Surface Sampling
• 44.5 Surface Sampling and Cleanliness: Guidelines and Integrated Protocols
• 44.6 Future Trends
• References

Chapter 45. Air Sampling

• Abstract
• 45.1 Introduction
• 45.2 Microbial Viability in the Air
• 45.3 Why, How, and What to Sample
• 45.4 Bioaerosols and Bioaerosol Samplers
• 45.5 Air Sampling Methods
• 45.6 Bioaerosol Assay Methods
• 45.7 Interpretation of Bioaerosol Results
• 45.8 Future Trends
• References

Chapter 46. Improving Hygiene Auditing

• Abstract
• 46.1 Introduction
• 46.2 Why Have a Hygiene Improvement Audit in the First Place?
• 46.3 Auditing and the Hierarchy of a Controlled System
• 46.4 Purposes of an Auditing System
• 46.5 Designing a System for Improvement Audits
• 46.6 Performing the Audit
• References