Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles

PrefaceAbout the Author1 Introduction    1.1 Fire, Explosions, and Environmental Pollution    1.2 Historical Background    1.3 Legal Influences    1.4 Hazards and Their Prevention    1.5 Risk Management and Insurance    1.6 Senior Management Responsibility and Accountability2 Overview of Oil and Gas Facilities    2.1 Introduction    2.2 Exploration    2.3 Production    2.4 Enhanced Oil Recovery    2.5 Transportation    2.6 Refining    2.7 Typical Refinery Process Flow    2.8 Marketing3 Philosophy of Protection Principles    3.1 Introduction    3.2 Legal Obligations    3.3 Insurance Recommendations    3.4 Company and Industry Standards    3.5 Worst Case Condition    3.6 Independent Layers of Protection    3.7 Design Principles    3.8 Accountability and Auditability4 Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons    4.1 Introduction    4.2 General Description of Hydrocarbons    4.3 Characteristics of Hydrocarbons    4.4 Flash Point    4.5 Autoignition Temperature    4.6 Vapor Density Ratio    4.7 Vapor Pressure    4.8 Specific Gravity    4.9 Flammable    4.10 Combustible    4.11 Heat of Combustion    4.12 Some Common Hydrocarbons5 Characteristics of Hydrocarbon Releases, Fires, and Explosions    5.1 Introduction    5.2 Hydrocarbon Releases    5.3 Gaseous Releases    5.4 Mists or Spray Releases    5.5 Liquid Releases    5.6 Nature and Chemistry of Hydrocarbon Combustion    5.7 Hydrocarbon Fires    5.8 Deliberate Terrorist Explosions    5.9 Semi-Confined Explosion Overpressures    5.10 Vapor Cloud Overpressures    5.11 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions    5.12 Smoke and Combustion Gases    5.13 Mathematical Consequence Modeling    5.14 Methods of Extinguishing Flames    5.15 Incident Scenario Development    5.16 Terminology of Hydrocarbon Explosions and Fires6 Historical Survey of Fire and Explosions in the Hydrocarbon Industries    6.1 Introduction    6.2 Lack of Industry Incident Database and Analysis    6.3 Insurance Industry Perspective    6.4 Process Industry Perspective    6.5 Major Incidents Affect Process Industry Safety Management    6.6 Incident Data    6.7 Summary7 Risk Analysis    7.1 Introduction    7.2 Risk Identification and Evaluation    7.3 Specialized Supplemental Studies    7.4 Risk Acceptance Criteria    7.5 Relevant and Accurate Data Resources    7.6 Insurance Risk Evaluations8 Segregation, Separation, and Arrangement    8.1 Introduction    8.2 Segregation    8.3 Separation    8.4 Manned Facilities and Locations    8.5 Process Units    8.6 Storage Facilities – Tanks    8.7 Flares and Burn Pits    8.8 Critical Utilities and Support Systems    8.9 Arrangement    8.10 Plant Roads – Truck Routes, Crane Access, and Emergency Response9 Grading, Containment, and Drainage Systems    9.1 Introduction    9.2 Drainage Systems    9.3 Process and Area Drainage    9.4 Surface Drainage    9.5 Open Channels and Trenches    9.6 Spill Containment10 Process Controls    10.1 Introduction    10.2 Human Observation    10.3 Electronic Process Control    10.4 Instrumentation, Automation, and Alarm Management    10.5 System Reliability    10.6 Transfer and Storage Controls    10.7 Burner Management Systems11 Emergency Shutdown    11.1 Introduction    11.2 Definition and Objective    11.3 Design Philosophy    11.4 Activation Mechanism    11.5 Levels of Shutdown    11.6 Reliability and Fail Safe Logic    11.7 Esd/Dcs Interfaces    11.8 Activation Points    11.9 Activation Hardware Features    11.10 Isolation Valve Requirements    11.11 Emergency Isolation Valves    11.12 Subsea Isolation Valves    11.13 Protection Requirements    11.14 System Interactions12 Depressurization, Blowdown, and Venting    12.1 Introduction    12.2 Objective of Depressuring    12.3 Blowdown    12.4 Venting    12.5 Flares and Burn Pits13 Overpressure and Thermal Relief    13.1 Introduction    13.2 Causes of Overpressure    13.3 Pressure Relief Valves    13.4 Thermal Relief    13.5 Solar Heat    13.6 Pressure Relief Device Locations14 Control of Ignition Sources    14.1 Introduction    14.2 Open Flames, Hot Work, Cutting, and Welding    14.3 Electrical Arrangements    14.4 Electrical Area Classification    14.5 Electrical Area Classification Divisions and Groups    14.6 Surface Temperature Limits    14.7 Classified Locations and Release Sources    14.8 Protection Measures    14.9 Smoking    14.10 Static    14.11 Lightning    14.12 Internal Combustion Engines    14.13 Hot Surface Ignition    14.14 Pyrophoric Materials    14.15 Spark Arrestors    14.16 Hand Tools    14.17 Mobile Telephones, Laptops, and Portable Electronic Field Devices15 Elimination of Process Releases    15.1 Introduction    15.2 Inventory Reduction    15.3 Vents and Relief Valves    15.4 Sample Points    15.5 Drainage Systems    15.6 Storage Facilities    15.7 Pump Seals    15.8 Vibration Stress Failure of Piping    15.9 Rotating Equipment16 Fire and Explosion-Resistant Systems    16.1 Introduction    16.2 Explosions    16.3 Definition of Explosion Potentials    16.4 Explosion Protection Design Arrangements    16.5 Vapor Dispersion Enhancements    16.6 Damage-Limiting Construction    16.7 Fireproofing    16.8 Radiation Shields    16.9 Water Cooling Sprays    16.10 Vapor Dispersion Water Sprays    16.11 Locations Requiring Consideration of Fire-Resistant Measures    16.12 Flame Resistance    16.13 Fire Dampers    16.14 Smoke Dampers    16.15 Flame and Spark Arrestors    16.16 Piping Detonation Arrestors17 Fire and Gas Detection and Alarm Systems    17.1 Introduction    17.2 Fire and Smoke Detection Methods    17.3 Smoke Detectors    17.4 Thermal or Heat Detectors    17.5 Gas Detectors    17.6 Application    17.7 Catalytic Point Gas Detector    17.8 Infra-Red (IR) Beam Gas Detector    17.9 Ultrasonic Area Gas Detector    17.10 Alarm Setting    17.11 Calibration    17.12 Hazardous Area Classification    17.13 Fire and Gas Detection Control Panels    17.14 Graphic Annunciation    17.15 Power Supplies    17.16 Emergency Backup Power    17.17 Time Delay    17.18 Voting Logic    17.19 Cross Zoning    17.20 Executive Action    17.21 Circuit Supervision    17.22 Vibration Avoidance18 Evacuation    18.1 Introduction    18.2 Emergency Response Plan    18.3 Alarms and Notification    18.4 Evacuation Routes    18.5 Emergency Doors, Stairs, Exits, and Escape Hatches    18.6 Marking and Identification    18.7 Shelter-in-Place    18.8 Offshore Evacuation19 Methods of Fire Suppression    19.1 Introduction    19.2 Portable Fire Extinguishers    19.3 Water Suppression Systems    19.4 Water Supplies    19.5 Fire Pumps    19.6 Fire Pump Standards and Tests    19.7 Firewater Distribution Systems    19.8 Firewater Control and Isolation Valves    19.9 Sprinkler Systems    19.10 Water Deluge Systems    19.11 Water Spray Systems    19.12 Water Flooding    19.13 Steam Smothering    19.14 Water Curtains    19.15 Blow Out Water Injection Systems    19.16 Hydrants, Monitors, and Hose Reels    19.17 Nozzles    19.18 Foam Suppression Systems    19.19 Manual Firefighting Utilization    19.20 Gaseous Systems    19.21 Chemical Systems    19.22 Dual Agent Systems20 Special Locations, Facilities, and Equipment    20.1 Introduction    20.2 Arctic Environments    20.3 Desert Arid Environments    20.4 Tropical Environments    20.5 Earthquake Zones    20.6 Offshore Facilities    20.7 Pipelines    20.8 Exploration Wellheads (Onshore and Offshore)    20.9 Loading Facilities    20.10 Electrical Equipment and Communications Rooms    20.11 Oil Filled Transformers    20.12 Battery Rooms    20.13 Enclosed Turbines or Gas Compressor Packages    20.14 Emergency Generators    20.15 Heat Transfer Systems    20.16 Cooling Towers    20.17 Hydrocarbon Testing Laboratories (Including Oil  or Water Testing and Darkrooms)    20.18 Warehouses    20.19 Cafeterias and Kitchens21 Human Factors and Ergonomic Considerations    21.1 Introduction    21.2 Human Attitude    21.3 Control Room Consoles    21.4 Field Devices    21.5 Instructions, Markings, and Identification    21.6 Colors and Identification    21.7 Noise Control    21.8 Panic    21.9 Security    21.10 Accommodation of Religious PracticesAppendicesAppendix A: Testing Firewater Systems    A.1 Testing of Firewater Pumping Systems    A.2 Testing of Firewater Distribution Systems    A.3 Testing of Sprinkler and Deluge Systems    A.4 Testing of Foam Fire Suppression Systems    A.5 Testing of Firewater Hose Reels and Monitors    A.6 Fire Protection Hydrostatic Testing RequirementsAppendix B: Reference Data    B.1 FIre Resistance Testing Standards    B.2 Explosion and Fire Resistance Ratings    B.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (Nema) Classifications    B.4 Hydraulic Data    B.5 Selected Conversion FactorsAcronym ListGlossaryIndex