Geothermal Power Generation

Developments and Innovation

2nd Edition - October 11, 2024
Editors: Ronald DiPippo, Luis Carlos Gutiérrez-Negrín, Andrew Chiasson
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 2 4 7 5 0 - 7
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 2 4 7 5 1 - 4

Geothermal Power Generation, New Developments and Innovations, Second Edition provides an update to the advanced energy technologies that are urgently required to meet the challe… Read more

Purchase options

SPRING SALE

Bloom into spring savings!

Save up to 25% on books, eBooks and Journals!

Shop now

Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Request a sales quote

Geothermal Power Generation, New Developments and Innovations, Second Edition provides an update to the advanced energy technologies that are urgently required to meet the challenges of economic development, climate change mitigation, and energy security. Edited by respected and leading experts in the field, this book provides a comprehensive overview of the major aspects of geothermal power production. Chapters cover resource discovery, resource characterization, energy conversion systems, design, economic considerations, and a range of fascinating and updated case studies from across the world.

Geothermal resources are considered renewable and are currently the only renewable source able to generate baseload electricity while producing very low levels of greenhouse gas emissions, thus playing a key role in future energy needs.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
List of Contributors
Author Biographies
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
1. Introduction to Geothermal Power Generation
1.1 Background
1.2 Geothermal Resources
1.3 Well Drilling
1.4 Reservoir Engineering
1.5 Reservoir Monitoring
1.6 Engineered Geothermal Systems
1.7 Geothermal Power Generation
1.8 Geothermal as Sustainable and Renewable
1.9 Geothermal Reservoir Pumps
1.10 Geothermal Costs
Part One. Resource Exploration, Characterization, and Evaluation
2. Geology of Geothermal Resources
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Heat Flow and Plate Tectonics
2.2.1 Installed Geothermal Electrical Generating Capacity
2.2.2 Geothermal Systems and Plate Tectonics
2.3 Temperature–Depth Relationships in Geothermal Systems
2.4 Geothermal Systems With Economic Potential
2.5 Geologic Techniques
2.5.1 Hydrothermal Alteration
2.6 Volcanic-Hosted Systems
2.6.1 Liquid-Dominated Geothermal Systems
2.6.2 Vapor-Dominated Geothermal Systems
2.6.3 The Geysers
2.7 Sediment-Hosted Geothermal Systems
2.8 Geothermal Systems in Extensional Tectonic Regimes
2.9 Unconventional Geothermal Resources
2.9.1 Coproduced Heat From Oil and Gas Wells
2.9.2 Enhanced Geothermal Systems
2.9.3 Closed-Loop Geothermal Systems
2.9.4 Supercritical Geothermal Resources
2.9.5 Combined Use of Geothermal Energy and Dissolved Components in Geothermal Brines
2.10 Conclusions
3. Geophysics and Resource Conceptual Models in Geothermal Exploration and Development
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Geophysics in the Context of Geothermal Decision-Making Risk Assessment
3.3 Geothermal Resource Conceptual Models
3.4 Geothermal Resource Models with Different Elements Than Those in Fig. 3.1
3.4.1 Detecting Magma in Geothermal Exploration
3.4.2 Deep Conductively Heated Stratigraphic Reservoirs
3.4.3 Geothermal Prospects with “Hidden” or “Blind” Reservoirs
3.5 Formation Properties and Geophysical Methods
3.6 Choosing Geophysical Methods and Designing Surveys for Geothermal Applications
3.7 Resistivity Methods
3.8 Magnetotelluric Surveys
3.9 Time Domain Electromagnetic Resistivity Sounding for Correction of Magnetotelluric Static Distortion
3.10 Awibengkok Magnetotelluric Model and Validation
3.11 Using Magnetotelluric Data to Build Conceptual Models and Define Resource Areas and Targets
3.12 Deep Low-Resistivity Zones
3.13 Gravity Methods for Exploration and Development
3.13.1 Repeat Microgravity
3.14 Magnetic Methods
3.15 Seismic Monitoring
3.16 Seismic Reflection/Refraction Methods
3.17 Borehole Wireline Logs
3.17.1 Borehole Image Logs
3.17.2 Borehole Formation Logs
3.17.3 Gamma Logs
3.17.4 Resistivity Logs and Alternative Clay Analyses
3.18 Self-Potential Method
3.19 Geophysics Management Issues
4. Applying Geochemistry to Resource Assessment and Geothermal Development Projects
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early-Phase Resource Assessment
4.2.1 Liquid Geothermometers and Impacting Processes
4.2.1.1 Silica in Geothermal Fluid, Temperatures, and Mixing
4.2.1.2 Cation Geothermometers and Water/Rock Equilibration
4.2.2 Noncondensable Gas Geochemistry and Gas Geothermometers in Geothermal Systems
4.3 Contributions to Conceptual Models
4.3.1 Reservoir Temperatures
4.3.2 Water Sources and Recharge
4.3.2.1 Distinguishing Water Sources Using Stable Isotopes
4.3.2.2 Distinguishing Water Sources Using Gases
4.3.2.3 Distinguishing Geothermal Fluids and Reservoir Processes Using Water Types
4.3.3 Mixing
4.3.4 Upflow and Outflow
4.3.5 Reservoir Layers
4.3.6 Boiling
4.4 Geochemical Contributions to Geothermal Power Project Design
4.4.1 Noncondensable Gas
4.4.2 Potential Geothermal Emissions of Concern
4.4.3 Scaling
4.4.4 Carbonate
4.4.5 Silica and Silicates
4.4.6 Steam Purity
4.4.7 Corrosion
4.5 Geochemical Tools for Geothermal Reservoir Operation and Maintenance
4.6 Summary
5. Geothermal Well Drilling
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Rock Formations
5.1.2 High Temperature
5.1.3 Reservoir Pressures
5.1.4 Large Well and Casing Design
5.1.5 Well Completion Program
5.2 Getting Started
5.3 Casing Design
5.3.1 Grade
5.3.2 Tension
5.3.3 Burst
5.3.4 Collapse
5.3.5 Weight
5.4 Mud Program
5.5 Directional Program
5.6 Wellhead Design and Blowout Preventer Systems
5.7 Cementing Program
5.8 Cement Placement
5.8.1 Conventional Cementing
5.8.2 Inner String Cementing
5.8.3 Liner Cementing
5.8.4 Squeeze Cementing and Plug Cementing
5.8.5 Multistage Cementing
5.8.6 Reverse Cementing
5.9 Hydraulic and Bit Program
5.9.1 Hydraulic Program
5.9.2 Bits
5.9.2.1 Roller Cone Bits
5.9.2.2 Drag Bits
5.9.2.3 Impregnated Diamond Bits
5.10 Drilling Curve
5.11 Mud Logging
5.12 Drilling Rig Selection and Special Considerations
5.13 Cost Estimate
5.14 Advanced Drilling Techniques for Heat Mining
5.15 Concluding Summary
6. Characterization, Evaluation, and Interpretation of Well Data
6.1 Upward Convective Flow in Reservoirs
6.2 Pressure and Temperature Profile Analysis
6.2.1 Feed Zone Locations
6.2.2 Estimating Reservoir Pressure and Temperature
6.2.3 Plotting Reservoir Pressure and Temperature with Depth
6.2.4 Temperature Transient Analysis
6.3 Injection Testing
6.4 Discharge Tests
6.5 Pressure Transient Tests
6.5.1 Well Test Interpretation
6.5.1.1 Compressibility
6.5.1.2 Viscosity
6.5.2 Example
6.6 Wellbore Heat Loss
6.6.1 Single-Phase Flow
6.6.1.1 Production
6.6.1.2 Injection
6.6.1.3 Example Single-Phase Calculations
6.6.2 Two-Phase Flow
6.7 Summary
7. Reservoir Modeling and Simulation for Geothermal Resource Characterization and Evaluation
7.1 Review of Resource Estimation Methods
7.1.1 Introduction
7.1.2 Stored Heat Calculation
7.1.3 Australian Standard
7.1.4 Exergy
7.1.5 Computer Modeling
7.2 Computer Modeling Methodology
7.2.1 Basic Equations
7.2.2 Numerical Techniques
7.2.3 Equations of State
7.3 Computer Modeling Process
7.3.1 Conceptual Modeling and Computer Modeling
7.3.2 Interaction with Geological and Other Geoscience Models
7.3.3 Model Design
7.3.4 Boundary Conditions
7.3.5 Natural State, Production History, Future Scenarios
7.3.6 Dual Porosity versus Single Porosity Models
7.3.7 Model Calibration
7.4 Recent Modeling Experiences
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Dual Porosity
7.4.3 Boundary Conditions
7.4.4 Modeling EGS
7.4.5 TOUGHREACT, Scaling, and Other Chemical Processes
7.4.6 Carbon Dioxide in Geothermal Fields
7.4.7 Supercritical Geothermal Resources
7.5 Current Developments and Future Directions
7.5.1 Model Calibration
7.5.1.1 Long Run-times
7.5.1.2 Runs Fail to Finish
7.5.1.3 Large Number of Parameters
7.5.1.4 Parameter Refinement
7.5.1.5 Excess Enthalpy
7.5.2 Uncertainty Quantification Methodology
7.5.2.1 Systematic Errors and Inconsistencies
7.5.2.2 Uncertainty in Model Parameters
7.5.2.3 Discretization Errors
7.5.2.4 Measurement Errors
7.5.3 Application of Uncertainty Quantification to Geothermal Modeling
7.5.4 Data Worth Analysis
7.5.5 Simulator Improvements
7.6 Case Study of Reservoir Modeling: Lahendong, Indonesia
7.6.1 Background
7.6.2 Previous Modeling Studies
7.6.3 Creation of the Numerical Model
7.6.4 Model Calibration
7.6.4.1 Natural State
7.6.4.2 Production History
7.7 Conclusions
Part Two. Energy Conversion Systems
8. Overview of Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems: Reservoir, Wells, Piping, Plant, and Reinjection
8.1 Introduction
8.2 It Begins with the Reservoir
8.3 Getting the Energy out of the Reservoir
8.4 Connecting the Wells to the Power Station
8.5 Central Power Station
8.6 Geofluid Disposal
8.7 Conclusions and a Look Ahead
9. Elements of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer Applied to Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems∗
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definitions and Terminology
9.3 First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems
9.4 First Law of Thermodynamics for Open Steady Systems
9.5 First Law of Thermodynamics for Open Unsteady Systems
9.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems
9.6.1 Clausius Statement
9.6.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement
9.6.3 Clausius Inequality
9.6.4 Existence of Entropy
9.6.5 Principle of Entropy Increase
9.7 Second Law of Thermodynamics for Open Systems
9.8 Exergy and Exergy Destruction
9.9 Thermodynamic State Diagrams
9.10 Bernoulli Equation
9.11 Pressure Loss Calculations
9.12 Principles of Heat Transfer Applied to Geothermal Power Plants
9.13 Example Analyses for Elements of Geothermal Power Plants
9.13.1 Production Well
9.13.2 Separator
9.13.3 Flash Vessel
9.13.4 Pipelines
9.13.5 Turbine
9.13.6 Condenser
9.13.7 Preheater and Evaporator
9.14 Conclusions
10. Flash Steam Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems: Single-, Double-, and Triple-Flash and Combined-Cycle Plants
10.1 Flash Steam Cycles
10.1.1 Single Flash
10.1.2 Double and Triple Flash
10.1.3 Silica Scaling
10.1.3.1 Control of Solubility
10.1.3.2 Control of Precipitation Kinetics
10.1.3.3 Solids Separation
10.2 Mixed and Combined Cycles
10.2.1 Mixed Cycles
10.2.2 Combined Cycles
10.2.2.1 Air-Cooled Combined Cycles
10.2.2.2 Water-Cooled Combined Cycles
10.3 Cogeneration and Coproduction from Flashed Brines
10.3.1 Thermal Energy
10.3.2 Fluids
10.3.3 Solids
10.4 Equipment Research and Development
10.4.1 Gathering Systems and Separator Stations
10.4.1.1 Separator Station Design Options
10.4.1.2 Separator and Demister Design Options
10.4.1.3 Reboilers
10.4.1.4 Vent Stations and Turbine Bypass
10.4.1.5 Brine Injection Pumps
10.4.2 Steam Turbines
10.4.2.1 Condensing Steam Turbines
10.4.2.2 Wellhead and Back-Pressure Turbines
10.4.2.3 Biphase Turbines
10.4.2.4 Supercritical Cycles
10.4.3 Condensers
10.4.4 Cooling System Considerations for Flash Plants
10.4.4.1 Water-Cooled
10.4.4.2 Air-Cooled
10.4.4.3 Hybrid Cooling
10.4.5 Noncondensable Gas Removal Systems
10.4.5.1 Ejectors
10.4.5.2 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
10.4.5.3 Turbocompressors
10.4.5.4 Other Noncondensable Gas Removal Strategies
10.4.6 Environmental Systems—Hydrogen Sulfide Abatement
10.5 Summary
11. Direct Steam Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems: Dry Steam and Superheated Steam Plants
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Early Applications
11.1.2 Unit Size
11.1.3 Power Cycle
11.1.4 Steam Quality
11.1.5 Steam Systems
11.1.6 Turbines
11.1.7 Condensers
11.1.8 Gas Removal Systems
11.1.9 Cooling Systems
11.1.10 Plant Auxiliaries
11.1.11 Engineering Materials
11.2 Power Cycle
11.2.1 Overview
11.2.2 Optimization of Turbine Inlet Conditions
11.2.3 Optimization of Turbine Exhaust Pressure and Cooling System
11.2.4 Optimization Around the Concentration of Noncondensable Gases
11.3 Steam Quality
11.3.1 Geothermal Steam
11.3.2 Vapor
11.3.3 Liquid and Solid Constituents
11.3.4 Noncondensable Gases
11.3.5 Chemical Constituents
11.4 Steam Systems
11.4.1 Steam Pretreatment
11.4.1.1 Scrubbers
11.4.1.2 Steam Desuperheating and Washing
11.4.1.3 Inertial Demisters
11.4.2 Steam Piping
11.4.2.1 Piping Material
11.4.2.2 Arrangement Considerations
11.4.2.3 Condensate Management
11.4.2.4 Flow Measurement Devices
11.5 Turbine Generators
11.5.1 Steam Turbines in Geothermal Service
11.5.1.1 Turbine Size and Configuration
11.5.1.2 Last-Stage Blades
11.5.2 Steam Path Considerations
11.5.2.1 Blade Profile and Shape
11.5.2.2 Integral Shrouds
11.5.2.3 Moisture Removal
11.5.3 Design Features for Geothermal Applications
11.5.3.1 Design for Scale Prevention/Mitigation
11.5.3.2 Moisture Limits in Turbine Exhaust Steam
11.5.3.3 Moisture Removal and Stage Drain Management
11.5.3.4 Material Enhancements for Wear Parts
11.5.4 Materials Selection for Turbine Internals
11.5.4.1 Rotors
11.5.4.2 Rotating Blades
11.5.4.3 Stationary Blades
11.5.4.4 Corrosion and Erosion Protection
11.5.5 Generators
11.5.5.1 Cooling
11.5.5.2 Corrosion Protection
11.5.6 Designing for Efficiency and Reliability
11.6 Condensers
11.6.1 Water-Cooled Direct-Contact Condensers
11.6.2 Water-Cooled Surface Condensers
11.6.3 Multipressure Condensers
11.6.4 Noncondensable Gas Cooling Zones and External Coolers
11.6.5 Air-Cooled Condensers
11.6.6 Designing for Efficiency and Reliability
11.7 Gas Removal Systems
11.7.1 Function
11.7.2 Steam Jet Ejectors
11.7.3 Ejector Condensers
11.7.4 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
11.7.5 Axial or Radial Compressors
11.7.6 Hybrid Systems
11.7.7 Design for Efficiency and Reliability
11.7.7.1 Number of Stages
11.7.7.2 Stage Equipment Selection
11.7.7.3 Installed Spare Capacity for Rotating Equipment
11.7.7.4 Instrumentation
11.7.7.5 Motive Steam Pressure
11.8 Cooling Systems
11.8.1 Evaporative Cooling
11.8.2 Dry and Hybrid Cooling
11.8.3 Cooling Systems and Project Optimization
11.8.4 Cooling System Piping
11.9 Plant Auxiliaries
11.9.1 Auxiliary Cooling
11.9.2 Compressed Air
11.9.3 Fire Protection
11.9.4 Design Features for Geothermal Applications
11.10 Engineering Materials
11.10.1 Power Plant Materials in Geothermal Service
11.10.2 Steam Service
11.10.3 Condensate Service
11.10.4 Noncondensable Gas Service
11.10.5 Cooling Water Service
11.10.6 Auxiliary Services
11.10.7 Electrical Equipment
11.11 Summary
12. Total Flow and Other Systems Involving Two-Phase Expansion
12.1 Total Flow
12.1.1 Introduction
12.1.2 Previous Work
12.1.3 Screw Expanders
12.1.4 Screw Expander–Turbine Combinations
12.1.4.1 Single-Flash Systems
12.1.4.2 Double-Flash Systems
12.1.4.3 Parallel Screw Expander and Turbine
12.1.5 Turbines
12.1.5.1 The Biphase Turbine
12.1.5.2 Axial Flow Turbines
12.1.5.3 Radial Inflow Turbines
12.1.5.4 Radial Outflow (Reaction) Turbines
12.1.6 Conclusion
12.2 Alternative Systems for Power Recovery Based on Two-phase Expansion
12.2.1 Engineered Geothermal Systems with Water as the Power Plant Working Fluid
12.2.2 Binary Systems Using Organic Working Fluids
12.2.2.1 Binary System for Medium Enthalpy Sources
12.2.2.2 Trilateral Flash Cycle and Wet Organic Rankine Cycle Systems
12.2.3 Conclusion
13. Binary Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems: Basic Rankine, Dual Boiling, Supercritical, and Mixed Working Fluid Power Cycles
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Binary Power Cycle
13.3 Binary Cycle Performance
13.3.1 Performance Metrics
13.3.1.1 Thermal Efficiency
13.3.1.2 Second Law Efficiency
13.3.2 Efficiency Metrics Versus Power
13.4 Types of Binary Cycles
13.4.1 Subcritical Boiling Cycles
13.4.2 Trilateral Cycle
13.4.3 Supercritical Cycle
13.5 Selection of Working Fluid
13.5.1 Single-Component Working Fluids
13.5.2 Mixed Working Fluids
13.6 Geothermal Fluid Temperature Constraint
13.6.1 Recuperation
13.6.2 Turbine Extraction Feed-Heating
13.7 Cycle Performance Comparison
13.8 Design Considerations
13.8.1 Geothermal Heat Exchangers
13.8.2 Heat Rejection
13.8.3 Operation Under “Off-Design” Conditions
13.9 Economic Considerations
14. Combined and Hybrid Geothermal Power Systems
14.1 Introduction and Definitions
14.2 General Thermodynamic Considerations
14.3 Combined Single- and Double-Flash Systems
14.4 Combined Flash and Binary Systems
14.5 Geothermal–Fossil Hybrid Systems
14.5.1 Fossil-Fueled Superheated Geothermal Steam Plants
14.5.2 Coal-Fired Plants With Geothermal-Heated Feedwater
14.5.3 Compound Hybrid Geothermal–Fossil Plants
14.5.4 Gas Turbine Topped–Geothermal Flash-Steam Hybrid Plant with Superheating
14.5.5 Geothermal–Biomass Hybrid Plants
14.5.6 Geopressure Thermal–Hydraulic Hybrid Systems
14.6 Geothermal–Solar Hybrid Systems
14.6.1 Geothermal–Concentrating Solar Power Hybrid Plants
14.6.2 Geothermal–Photovoltaic Hybrid Plants
14.7 Conclusions
Nomenclature
15. Enhanced Geothermal Systems: Review and Status of Research and Development
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Characterization of Geothermal Energy Systems
15.3 Reservoir Types Applicable for Enhanced Geothermal System Development
15.4 Treatments to Enhance Productivity of a Priori Low-Permeability Rocks
15.4.1 Thermal Stimulation
15.4.2 Chemical Stimulation
15.4.3 Hydromechanical Stimulation
15.4.3.1 Massive Water Injection Treatments
15.4.3.2 Hydraulic-Proppant Treatments
15.4.3.3 Multistage Treatment
15.5 Environmental Impact of Enhanced Geothermal System Treatments
15.5.1 Induced Seismicity
15.5.2 Measures to Mitigate Seismic Events
15.5.2.1 Traffic Light System
15.5.2.2 Cyclic Treatments
15.5.3 Processes with Treatment Fluids
15.5.4 Connecting Drinking Water Horizons
15.6 Sustainable Operation
15.6.1 Auxiliary Energy
15.6.2 Flow Control and Monitoring Systems
15.7 Closed-Loop Geothermal Systems
15.8 Outlook
Part Three. Design and Economic Considerations
16. Waste Heat Rejection Methods in Geothermal Power Generation
16.1 Introduction: Overview and Scope
16.2 Condensers in Geothermal Power Plants
16.2.1 General
16.2.2 Impact on Thermodynamic Efficiency
16.2.3 Noncondensable Gases
16.3 Water-Cooled Condensers
16.3.1 General
16.3.2 Types of Condensers
16.3.2.1 Direct-Contact
16.3.2.2 Shell-and-Tube
16.3.3 Heat Dissipation
16.3.3.1 Once-Through Cooling Systems
16.3.3.2 The Cooling Tower
16.3.4 Operation and Maintenance
16.4 Air-Cooled Condensers
16.4.1 General
16.4.2 Types of Condensers
16.4.2.1 Direct-Contact
16.4.2.2 Integral Fin
16.4.3 Operation and Maintenance
16.5 Evaporative (Water- and Air-Cooled) Condensers
16.5.1 General
16.5.2 Heat Transfer Considerations
16.5.3 Condenser Configuration
16.5.4 Operation and Maintenance
16.6 Future Trends
16.7 Concluding Summary
17. Silica Scale Control in Geothermal Plants: Historical Perspective and Current Technology∗
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Geochemistry of Silica
17.3 Thermodynamics of Silica Solubility
17.4 Silica Precipitation Kinetics
17.5 Silica Scaling Experience in Geothermal Power Production
17.6 Historical Techniques for Silica/Silicate Scale Inhibition
17.7 Current Scale-Control Techniques at High Supersaturation
17.8 Case Study of Scale Control in Combined-Cycle Plant Design
17.9 Pilot-Plant Testing for Bottoming Cycle Optimization
17.10 Guidelines for Optimum pH-Modification System Design
17.10.1 Brine Flow Measurement and Control
17.10.2 Control System and Acid Delivery Response Time
17.10.3 pH Measurement
17.10.4 Acid Mixing and Corrosion-Resistant Materials
17.11 Summary
18. Environmental and Sociocultural Benefits and Challenges Associated With Geothermal Power Generation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Contribution of Geothermal Energy to a Sustainable World
18.3 Environmental and Sociocultural Benefits and Challenges of Geothermal Projects
18.3.1 Sustainability Imperative
18.3.2 Scope of Review
18.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment Approach
18.3.4 Environmental Impacts
18.3.4.1 Air Quality
18.3.4.2 Noise
18.3.4.3 Geologic Impacts
18.3.4.4 Water Quality
18.3.4.5 Solid Wastes
18.3.4.6 Land Use
18.3.4.7 Forest Ecosystem and Biodiversity
18.3.5 Social Impacts of Geothermal Projects
18.3.5.1 Social Acceptance
18.3.5.2 Local Employment
18.3.5.3 Development Funds
18.3.5.4 Community Development Assistance
18.3.5.5 Involuntary Resettlement
18.3.6 Cultural Impacts
18.3.7 Summary of Benefits and Challenges of Geothermal Projects
18.4 Develop an Environmentally Sound and Socially Responsible Project
18.4.1 Conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
18.4.2 Develop a Comprehensive Environmental Management Plan
18.4.3 Install an Environmental Management System
18.4.4 Conduct a Social Impact Assessment
18.4.5 Facilitate Social Acceptability
18.4.5.1 Conduct a Stakeholder Analysis
18.4.5.2 Consult with Local Authorities and Communities
18.4.5.3 Maintain Good Relations with Stakeholders
18.5 Implement a Comprehensive Monitoring Program
18.6 Conclusions
19. Project Permitting, Financing, and Economics of Geothermal Power Generation
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Chapter Structure
19.1.2 Renewable Energy Finance
19.1.3 Power Generation and Finance
19.2 Financing Background
19.2.1 Financing Arrangements
19.2.2 Project Structure
19.3 Evidence in Geothermal Drilling and Construction
19.4 Costs and Financing Issues
19.4.1 Actors and Roles
19.4.2 Exploration Phase
19.4.3 Construction and Operational Phases
19.4.4 Decommissioning and Site Reclamation
19.5 Land Use Permitting and Interconnection
19.5.1 Regulatory Permit Process
19.5.2 Typical Project Approval Process
19.5.3 Involvement of Various Levels of Governance
19.6 Long-Term Economic and Financing Security
19.6.1 Risks and Risk Indemnification
19.6.2 Expected Risks for Merchant Plants
19.6.2.1 Risks and Market Participation
19.6.2.2 Project Risk
19.6.2.3 Structural Risk
19.6.3 Financing Tools
19.6.4 Financing Versus Accounting Issues
19.6.4.1 Accounting Standards
19.6.4.2 Investment Tax Credits
19.6.4.3 Booking Reserves
19.6.5 Levelized Cost of Energy and Levelized Avoided Cost of Energy
19.6.5.1 Limits to Levelized Cost of Energy Assumptions
19.6.5.2 Merchant Versus Public Projects
19.6.5.3 Geothermal Siting and Financial Variables
19.6.5.4 Well Drilling Costs
19.6.5.5 Financing Scenarios and Timing
19.6.5.6 Implied Costs of Regulation
19.7 Conclusions
Appendix 19A
20. Mineral Recovery from Geothermal Brines
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Characteristics and Origins of Metalliferous Geothermal Fluids
20.3 Behavior of Dissolved Metals in Geothermal Wellbores and Separators
20.4 Overview of Technology for Extraction of Valuable Metals From Brines
20.4.1 Concentration and Precipitation
20.4.2 Sorption
20.4.3 Solvent Extraction
20.4.4 Membrane Separations Technology
20.4.5 Electrochemical Separation
20.5 Technology for Directly Extracting Metals from Salton Sea Geothermal Brines
20.6 Potential Economic Significance of Metals Recovery to Geothermal Revenue Streams
20.7 Conclusions
Part Four. Case Studies
21. Larderello, Italy: The Oldest Geothermal Field in Operation in the World
Prologue: Historical Outline on Geothermal Development in Italy up to 1960, with Particular Reference to the Boraciferous Region
From Prehistory to the End of the Eighteenth Century
The Chemical Industry of Larderello in the Nineteenth Century
The Chemical and Geo-Power Industries from 1900 to 1960
Concluding Remarks
Essential References for the Prologue
21.1 Introduction: Background of Geothermal Power Generation
21.1.1 Situation in Larderello in the Late 1800s
21.1.2 First Attempts to Convert Thermal Energy into Mechanical Energy
21.2 1900–1910: First Experiments of Geo-Power Generation and Initial Applications
21.2.1 Rise of Ginori and New Company Policies
21.2.2 First Cycle that Converted Thermal into Electric Energy
21.2.3 Problems yet to Solve
21.3 1910–16: First Geothermal Power Plant of the World, Experimental Generation, and Start of Geo-Power Production at the Commercial Scale
21.3.1 Designing a New Plant for Production of Electricity
21.3.2 Producing and Selling Electricity Becomes More than a Side Business
21.3.3 Numerous Plant Engineering Problems Needing Solutions
21.4 1917–30: Consolidation of Geoelectric Power Production at the Industrial Scale and Start of a New Technology: The Direct-Cycle Geo-Power Units
21.4.1 Connection with the University
21.4.2 Increasing Retrieved Steam
21.4.3 New Plants to Produce Electricity are Conceived and Developed
21.5 1930–43: Toward a Balanced Economic Importance of Chemical Production and Geo-Power Generation
21.5.1 “Complete” Use of Steam
21.5.2 New Developments in Plant Engineering
21.5.3 Development of a Booming Market: Electricity for Railway Transportation
21.5.4 A New Company is Created
21.6 1944–70: Destruction, Reconstruction, Relaunching, and Modification of the Geo-Power System
21.6.1 Situation at the End of World War II
21.6.2 Larderello 3 Power Plant
21.6.3 New Machinery to Create and Maintain a Vacuum
21.6.4 Optimal Vacuum
21.6.5 New Types of Condensers and Gas Coolants
21.6.6 Power Station Arrangement
21.6.7 Chemical Production Decline
21.6.8 Travale and Mount Amiata: New Areas for Geothermal Development
21.6.9 New Engineering Developments
21.6.10 Nationalization of Electricity Production
21.7 1970–90: From Reinjection of Spent Fluids and Processing of Steam to the Renewal of all Power Units and Remote Control of the Whole Generation System
21.7.1 Reinjection of Geothermal Fluids: Initial Experiences and Results
21.7.2 The Oil Crises and Further Development of Geothermal Research
21.7.3 Standardized Production Units
21.7.4 Remote Control of Power Plants
21.7.5 Steam Washing
21.8 1990–2023: Recent Technological Advancements, with Special Regard to the AMIS Project, New Materials, and Environmental Acceptability
21.8.1 Reduction of Hydrogen Sulfide and Mercury Impact: The AMIS Project
21.8.2 Ammonia Abatement Plant
21.8.3 Visual Impact
21.8.4 Improved Efficiency of the Generation System
21.8.5 Hybrid Power Plant Technologies
21.8.6 Direct Uses for District Heating and Agri-Food Production
21.8.7 Technology Development and Sustainability
21.9 Other Geothermal Areas
21.9.1 Ischia
21.9.2 Latera
22. The Geysers: The Oldest and Largest Geothermal Power Operation in the US
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Background
22.3 The Fledgling Years (1960–69)
22.4 Geothermal Comes of Age (1969–79)
22.5 The Geothermal Rush (1979–86)
22.6 The Troubled Era (1986–95)
22.7 The Watershed Years (1995–98)
22.8 Stability at Last (1998–2004)
22.9 Renewed Optimism (2004–15)
22.10 Adapting to Climate Change and Market Forces (2015–23)
22.11 The Future (Beyond 2023)
22.12 Lessons Learned
23. Indonesia: Vast Geothermal Potential to Support Net Zero Emissions
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Geological Background
23.3 Vast Geothermal Potential
23.4 History of Geothermal Development in Indonesia
23.5 Geothermal Energy Role in the Electricity Mix
23.5.1 Description of the geothermal Fields in Operation
23.5.1.1 Gunung Salak
23.5.1.2 Darajat
23.5.1.3 Wayang Windu
23.5.1.4 Sarulla
23.5.1.5 Dieng
23.5.1.6 Patuha
23.5.1.7 Ulumbu
23.5.1.8 Mataloko
23.5.1.9 Kamojang
23.5.1.10 Ulubelu
23.5.1.11 Lahendong
23.5.1.12 Sibayak
23.5.1.13 Karaha Bodas
23.5.1.14 Lumut Balai
23.5.1.15 Sorik Marapi
23.5.1.16 Muara Laboh
23.5.1.17 Sokoria
23.5.1.18 Rantau Dedap
23.5.2 Geothermal Wells
23.6 Geothermal Law and Other Geothermal Regulations
23.6.1 Geothermal Law Number 27 of 2003 and Law Number 21 of 2014
23.6.2 Government Regulations (GR) No. 7 of 2017
23.6.3 Presidential Decree No. 4 of 2010
23.6.4 Pricing Policy and Presidential Regulation (PR) No. 112 of 2022
23.7 National Energy Condition and Policy
23.7.1 National Energy Condition
23.7.2 National Energy Policy
23.8 Net Zero Emissions and Energy Transition Program
23.9 Geothermal Development Plan
23.10 Future Geothermal Prospects
23.10.1 Hululais
23.10.2 Sungai Penuh
23.10.3 Kotamobagu
23.10.4 Iyang–Argopuro
23.10.5 Bedugul
23.10.6 Tulehu
23.10.7 Cibuni
23.10.8 Ciater
23.10.9 Rajabasa
23.10.10 Blawan Ijen
23.10.11 Jaboi
23.10.12 Ata Deii
23.10.13 Wae Sano
23.11 Challenges and Opportunities in Geothermal Development
23.11.1 The Pricing policy
23.11.2 Long-Term Benefit
23.11.3 Fiscal Incentives and FiT
23.11.4 Geothermal Fund
23.11.5 Government Guarantee
23.11.6 De-Risking Facilities for Geothermal Exploration
23.11.7 Conclusions
24. The Philippines: Antecedents and Perspectives of the Third Largest Geothermal Power Market
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Philippine Experience
24.3 General Geology
24.4 Distribution of Geothermal Resources
24.4.1 Related to Volcanic Belts
24.4.1.1 Santa Ana Volcanic Belt—Luzon Central Cordillera Belt—Central Luzon Belt—Cuyo Belt [16]
24.4.1.2 Bicol Belt—Mindanao Central Cordillera
24.4.1.3 Negros Belt—Sulu Belt
24.4.1.4 Central Mindanao Belt—Cotabato Belt
24.4.2 Related to Major and Other Structures [11,18]
24.4.3 Related to Plutonic Occurrences
24.5 Geothermal Fields and Power Plants
24.5.1 Maibarara
24.5.2 MakBan
24.5.3 Tiwi
24.5.4 Bacon-Manito (BacMan)
24.5.5 Leyte Geothermal Field Complex
24.5.6 Northern Negros
24.5.7 Negros Oriental
24.5.8 Mt. Apo Geothermal Field
24.5.9 Totals
24.6 The Philippine Natural Resources Framework
24.7 Service (Operating) Contract Under the RE Law
24.8 Incentives
24.9 Geothermal Off-Take Mechanisms
24.9.1 Renewable Portfolio Standards
24.9.2 Implementation of the Green Energy Option Program through its Integration into the Wholesale Electricity Spot Market
24.9.3 Inclusion of Geothermal Plants as Priority Dispatch in the Wholesale Electricity Spot Market
24.10 Sharing
24.11 Present Status and Perspectives
24.12 The Way Forward
24.13 Conclusion
25. Geothermal Power Generation in Central America and the Caribbean Islands
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Location, Tectonics, Seismicity, and Volcanoes
25.2.1 Location
25.2.2 Tectonics
25.2.3 Seismic Hazard
25.2.4 Volcanoes
25.3 Central America
25.3.1 General Information
25.3.2 Costa Rica
25.3.2.1 Introduction
25.3.2.2 Geothermal Plants in Operation
25.3.2.3 Future Geothermal Development and Constraints
25.3.3 El Salvador
25.3.3.1 Introduction
25.3.3.2 Geothermal Plants in Operation
25.3.3.3 Future Geothermal Development
25.3.4 Guatemala
25.3.4.1 Introduction
25.3.4.2 Geothermal Plants in Operation
25.3.4.3 Future Geothermal Development
25.3.5 Honduras
25.3.5.1 Introduction
25.3.5.2 Geothermal Plant in Operation
25.3.5.3 Future Geothermal Development
25.3.6 Nicaragua
25.3.6.1 Introduction
25.3.6.2 Geothermal Plants in Operation
25.3.6.3 Future Geothermal Development
25.4 Caribbean Islands
25.4.1 Introduction
25.4.2 Geothermal Plants in Operation in Guadeloupe
25.4.3 Future Geothermal Development
25.5 Final Remarks
26. Geothermal Power Plants at High Altitude: The Chilean Experience
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Volcano-Tectonic Setting of Chile
26.3 History of Geothermal Energy in Chile
26.4 Description of the Cerro Pabellón Geothermal Field
26.5 Description of the Cerro Pabellón Geothermal Reservoir
26.6 Cerro Pabellón Power Plant: Main Features, Wells, Electricity Generation
26.7 Present Status and Perspectives: Lessons Learned
26.8 Conclusions
27. Cerro Prieto, Mexico: A Large Water-Dominated Field in Operation Since 1973
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Historical Development of the Field
27.3 Geological Description
27.4 Reservoir Description and Evolution
27.5 Field Description
27.6 Status and Perspectives
27.7 Lessons Learned
28. Kenya: The Most Successful Geothermal Development in Africa
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Historical Perspectives
28.3 Geological Setting
28.3.1 Kenya Rift
28.3.2 Structural Setting
28.3.3 Petrology of the Quaternary Rocks
28.4 Geothermal Fields in Operation
28.4.1 Olkaria Geothermal Field
28.4.2 Eburru Geothermal Field
28.4.3 Menengai Geothermal Field
28.4.4 Paka Geothermal Prospect
28.4.5 Other Geothermal Prospects
28.5 Geothermal Power Plants in Kenya
28.5.1 Olkaria I Power Plant
28.5.2 Olkaria Wellhead Power Plants
28.5.3 Olkaria II Power Plant
28.5.4 Olkaria IV Power Plant
28.5.5 Olkaria V Power Plant
28.5.6 Oserian Power Plants
28.5.7 Olkaria III (OrPower4 Power Plant)
28.5.8 Eburru Pilot Power Plant
28.5.9 Menengai Geothermal Project
28.6 Regulatory and Institutional Framework
28.6.1 Institutional Framework
28.6.2 Regulatory Framework
28.6.3 Policy Framework
28.6.4 PPP Act No. 15 2013 (Amended 2021)
28.6.5 Regulation for Environmental Impact Assessment
28.7 Conclusions, Perspectives, and Lessons Learned
Appendix: Worldwide Geothermal Power Plant Status-2022
Index

Life Sciences

Physical Sciences & Engineering

Social Sciences & Humanities

Health

Geothermal Power Generation

Developments and Innovation

Purchase options

Bloom into spring savings!

Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Ronald DiPippo

Luis Carlos Gutiérrez-Negrín

Andrew Chiasson

Related books