
Foot and Ankle Biomechanics
- 1st Edition - December 5, 2022
- Imprint: Academic Press
- Editors: William Ledoux, Scott Telfer
- Language: English
- Paperback ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 1 5 4 4 9 - 6
- eBook ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 1 5 4 3 7 - 3
Foot and Ankle Biomechanics is a one source, comprehensive and modern reference regarding foot and ankle biomechanics. This text serves as both a master reference for foot biomec… Read more

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Request a sales quoteFoot and Ankle Biomechanics is a one source, comprehensive and modern reference regarding foot and ankle biomechanics. This text serves as both a master reference for foot biomechanics, presenting a clear state of the research and capabilities in the field. The customers for this book will be those looking for information on foot and ankle biomechanics for a range of applications; for example, designers of orthotics.
- Provides a comprehensive overview of the science of foot and ankle biomechanics that is presented in an easily accessible format
- Presents normative data and descriptions relating to the structure and function of the foot and ankle, along with comparisons to pathological conditions
- Includes multimedia content to support modeling and simulation chapters
Foot and ankle biomechanics researchers, bioengineers, graduate students in biomechanics
- Cover image
- Title page
- Table of Contents
- Copyright
- Dedication
- List of contributors
- Preface
- Anatomical Terms Used in Foot and Ankle Biomechanics
- Part 1: Introduction
- Chapter 1. Anatomy of the Foot
- Abstract
- 1.1 Skeletal structures
- 1.2 Joints
- 1.3 Muscles and fascial specializations
- 1.4 Nerves
- 1.5 Blood supply
- Further reading
- Chapter 2. Basic Biomechanics
- Abstract
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Terminology
- 2.3 Statics
- 2.4 Dynamics
- 2.5 Strength of materials and deformation
- 2.6 Viscoelasticity
- 2.7 Summary
- References
- Chapter 3. Anatomical Nomenclature: Conundrums of Nonstandardized Foot and Ankle Terminology
- Abstract
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Anatomical descriptions
- 3.3 Foot motions
- 3.4 Terminological implications of mathematical choices
- 3.5 Conclusion: standardizing foot and ankle terminology
- References
- Part 2: Function
- Chapter 4. Kinematics and Kinetics of the Foot and Ankle during Gait
- Abstract
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Overview of relevant anatomy
- 4.3 Overview of kinematic and kinetic modeling
- 4.4 Healthy and impaired feet
- 4.5 Multisegment foot models
- 4.6 Future areas of research
- 4.7 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 5. Bone, Cartilage, and Joint Function
- Abstract
- 5.1 Bone components and structure
- 5.2 Cartilage
- 5.3 Joint functions
- 5.4 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 6. Muscles and Tendons
- Abstract
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Biomechanical function
- 6.3 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 7. Ligaments
- Abstract
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 Ligament anatomy
- 7.3 Mechanical properties
- 7.4 Ligament sprains
- 7.5 Overcoming limitations
- 7.6 Future areas of research
- References
- Chapter 8. Plantar Soft Tissue
- Abstract
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Anatomy
- 8.3 Biomechanical function
- 8.4 Mechanical properties
- 8.5 Effect of aging
- 8.6 Diabetic plantar soft tissue
- 8.7 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Part 3: Measurement and Analysis Techniques: Kinematics and Kinetics
- Chapter 9. Multisegment Foot Models
- Abstract
- 9.1 Basic principles of multisegment foot models
- 9.2 Selecting an appropriate multisegment foot model
- 9.3 Review of current multisegment foot models
- 9.4 Applications, considerations, and limitations
- 9.5 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 10. Invasive Techniques for Studying Foot and Ankle Kinematics
- Abstract
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Early invasive studies of foot and ankle biomechanics
- 10.3 Radiostereometric analysis
- 10.4 Applications and significance of studies using intracortical pins for foot and ankle kinematics
- 10.5 Limitations and future directions
- Appendix: Insertion of markers in bones of the foot and ankle
- References
- Chapter 11. Biplane Fluoroscopy
- Abstract
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 Background and history of biplane fluoroscopy
- 11.3 Other techniques for tracking foot bone kinematics
- 11.4 Challenges specific to foot and ankle tracking with biplane fluoroscopy
- 11.5 Overview of biplane hardware
- 11.6 Overview of biplane software
- 11.7 Clinical biplane foot and ankle studies
- 11.8 Future applications and directions
- References
- Chapter 12. Plantar Pressure and Ground Reaction Forces
- Abstract
- 12.1 Introduction: clinical relevance of force and pressure measurements in foot and ankle biomechanics
- 12.2 Background: force versus pressure
- 12.3 Research applications and selected clinical examples
- 12.4 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 13. Electromyography and Dynamometry for Investigating the Neuromuscular Control of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Electromyography
- 13.3 Dynamometry
- 13.4 Ankle and foot related considerations and insights
- 13.5 Future research
- References
- Chapter 14. From Impossible to Unnoticed: Wearable Technologies and The Miniaturization of Grand Science
- Abstract
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 The past
- 14.3 The present
- 14.4 The future
- References
- Part 4: Measurement and Analysis Techniques: Imaging
- Chapter 15. Integrated Laboratories for Pursuing Pedal Pathologies
- Abstract
- 15.1 Introduction
- 15.2 Our method of approach
- 15.3 Integrated laboratories
- 15.4 Case study of the integrated laboratories concept to the study of hallux rigidus
- 15.5 Future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 16. Radiographs
- Abstract
- 16.1 Introduction
- 16.2 Radiographic technology
- 16.3 Standard radiographic views of the foot and ankle
- 16.4 Definitions of X-ray measurements of foot shape
- 16.5 Foot-specific applications and considerations
- 16.6 Clinical X-ray measures of foot shape
- 16.7 Issues with X-ray measures of foot shape
- 16.8 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 17. Computed Tomography of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 17.1 Introduction
- 17.2 Foot-specific applications and considerations
- 17.3 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 18. Weight-bearing Computed Tomography of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 18.1 Introduction
- 18.2 Biases of conventional radiography
- 18.3 Technical aspects
- 18.4 Indications
- 18.5 3D biometrics
- 18.6 Advantages and limitations of weight-bearing computed tomography
- 18.7 Future areas of research
- 18.8 Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Conflict of interest statement
- References
- Further reading
- Chapter 19. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 19.1 Introduction
- 19.2 Magnetic resonance imaging sequences
- 19.3 Magnetic resonance imaging versus computed tomography
- 19.4 Magnetic resonance imaging appearance of musculoskeletal tissue—normal and pathology
- 19.5 Tailored magnetic resonance imaging protocol for the foot and ankle—indication driven
- 19.6 Magnetic resonance imaging anatomy of the foot and ankle
- 19.7 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 20. Biomechanical Assessment of Soft Tissues in the Foot and Ankle Using Ultrasound
- Abstract
- 20.1 Introduction
- 20.2 Ultrasound assessment of structural changes: the effect of weightbearing activities
- 20.3 Ultrasound assessment combined with measurement of load
- 20.4 Ultrasound elastography (sonoelastography)
- 20.5 Conclusion and future areas of research
- References
- Chapter 21. 3D Surface Scanning of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 21.1 Introduction
- 21.2 Foot-specific applications and considerations
- 21.3 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Part 5: Measurement and Analysis Techniques: Simulation and Modeling
- Chapter 22. Cadaveric Gait Simulation
- Abstract
- 22.1 Introduction
- 22.2 Techniques for dynamic gait simulation
- 22.3 Limitations of dynamic gait simulation
- 22.4 Clinical applications of dynamic gait simulation
- 22.5 Areas of future biomechanical research
- 22.6 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 23. Finite Element Modeling
- Abstract
- 23.1 Introduction
- 23.2 Basic concepts of finite element modeling
- 23.3 Applications of finite element analysis in foot biomechanics
- 23.4 Modeling strategies
- 23.5 Limitations and future research toward clinically applicable finite element modeling
- 23.6 Summary
- References
- Chapter 24. Musculoskeletal Modeling of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 24.1 Introduction
- 24.2 Foot specific models and applications
- 24.3 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 25. Predicting and Preventing Posttraumatic Osteoarthritis of the Ankle
- Abstract
- 25.1 Introduction: pathomechanical origins of posttraumatic osteoarthritis
- 25.2 Pathomechanics I: acute joint injury severity
- 25.3 Pathomechanics II: chronic stress aberration
- 25.4 Pathomechanics III: altered kinematics
- 25.5 Areas of future biomechanical research
- 25.6 Summary/conclusion
- References
- Chapter 26. Mechanics of Biological Tissues
- Abstract
- 26.1 Introduction
- 26.2 Materials and methods
- 26.3 Conclusion
- References
- Part 6: Clinical Biomechanics of the Foot and Ankle
- Chapter 27. Clinical Examination of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 27.1 Introduction
- 27.2 Demographics
- 27.3 Vital signs
- 27.4 Patient history
- 27.5 Assessment of pain
- 27.6 Visual observation/inspection
- 27.7 Lower extremity alignment
- 27.8 Foot posture or foot shape
- 27.9 Limb length
- 27.10 Radiographic examination
- 27.11 Range of motion/flexibility/joint mobility
- 27.12 Joint mobility
- 27.13 Ligamentous/stability testing
- 27.14 Tendon
- 27.15 Muscle strength
- 27.16 Sensory testing
- 27.17 Circulation
- 27.18 Foot and ankle specific testing
- 27.19 Footwear examination
- 27.20 Functional assessment
- 27.21 Outcomes assessment
- 27.22 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 28. Foot Type Biomechanics
- Abstract
- 28.1 Introduction
- 28.2 Structural foot type
- 28.3 Functional foot type
- 28.4 Foot type biomechanics
- 28.5 Association with pain and injury
- 28.6 Treatments
- 28.7 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 29. Traumatic Foot and Ankle Injuries
- Abstract
- 29.1 Introduction
- 29.2 Pilon fractures
- 29.3 Calcaneal fractures
- 29.4 Talus fractures
- 29.5 Tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc) injuries
- 29.6 Metatarsal fractures
- 29.7 Midfoot crush injuries
- 29.8 Acute ankle sprains
- 29.9 Syndesmosis tears
- 29.10 Achilles tendon rupture
- 29.11 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 30. The Pediatric Foot
- Abstract
- 30.1 Introduction
- 30.2 Common pathologies affecting pediatric feet
- 30.3 Functional assessment of the pediatric foot
- 30.4 Areas for future research
- References
- Chapter 31. Neurological Foot Pathology
- Abstract
- 31.1 Introduction
- 31.2 Stroke
- 31.3 Cerebral palsy
- 31.4 Toe walking
- 31.5 Peripheral neuropathy
- 31.6 Foot drop
- 31.7 Tarsal tunnel syndrome
- 31.8 Morton’s neuroma
- 31.9 Charcot foot
- 31.10 Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
- 31.11 Friedreich’s ataxia
- 31.12 Poliomyelitis
- 31.13 Areas of Future Research
- References
- Chapter 32. Chronic Foot and Ankle Injuries
- Abstract
- 32.1 Introduction
- 32.2 Chronic ankle instability
- 32.3 Plantar fasciitis
- 32.4 Tendinopathy (Achilles, peroneal, and posterior tibialis)
- 32.5 Stress fractures (navicular, metatarsals)
- 32.6 Sesamoiditis
- 32.7 Retrocalcaneal bursitis
- 32.8 Areas of future research for chronic foot and ankle injuries
- References
- Chapter 33. Hallux Valgus
- Abstract
- 33.1 Introduction
- 33.2 Prevalence
- 33.3 Etiology
- 33.4 Diagnosis and imaging
- 33.5 Clinical presentation
- 33.6 Functional outcomes
- 33.7 Treatment pathways
- 33.8 Future directions for research
- 33.9 Summary
- References
- Chapter 34. Osteoarthritis of the Foot and Ankle
- Abstract
- 34.1 Introduction
- 34.2 First metatarsophalangeal joint osteoarthritis
- 34.3 Midfoot osteoarthritis
- 34.4 Ankle osteoarthritis
- 34.5 Areas of future biomechanical research
- 34.6 Summary
- References
- Chapter 35. Diabetic Foot Disease
- Abstract
- 35.1 Background on diabetes
- 35.2 Overview of key negative outcomes of diabetic foot disease
- 35.3 Risk factors for the development and progression of diabetic foot disease
- 35.4 Changes in kinematics and kinetics in diabetic foot disease
- 35.5 Changes in tissue characteristics
- 35.6 The relationship between foot deformities and plantar ulceration
- 35.7 The relationship between lower extremity fractures and Charcot neuropathic osteoarthropathy
- 35.8 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 36. Rheumatic Foot Disease
- Abstract
- 36.1 Introduction
- 36.2 Rheumatoid arthritis
- 36.3 Spondlyarthropathies
- 36.4 Juvenile idiopathic arthritis
- 36.5 Connective tissue disorders
- 36.6 Gout
- 36.7 Future research
- References
- Chapter 37. The Aging Foot
- Abstract
- 37.1 Changing properties and functions of foot tissues
- 37.2 Foot posture and morphology
- 37.3 Foot function (kinematics/kinetics/plantar pressures)
- 37.4 Foot posture, foot disorders, and mobility limitations
- 37.5 Areas for future research
- References
- Chapter 38. Biomechanics of Athletic Footwear
- Abstract
- 38.1 Introduction
- 38.2 Anatomy of a running shoe
- 38.3 Biomechanics of athletic footwear design
- 38.4 Types of shoes and their features
- 38.5 Shod versus barefoot
- 38.6 Footwear related injuries
- 38.7 Future footwear research
- References
- Chapter 39. Minimal Shoes: Restoring Natural Running Mechanics
- Abstract
- 39.1 Introduction
- 39.2 Brief history of running footwear
- 39.3 Biomechanics of barefoot and conventional shod running
- 39.4 Minimal footwear running
- 39.5 Effect of minimal shoes on the foot musculoskeletal system
- 39.6 Summary
- 39.7 Future research
- References
- Part 7: Clincial Interventions
- Chapter 40. Foot Orthoses
- Abstract
- 40.1 Introduction
- 40.2 Biomechanical effects of foot orthoses
- 40.3 Effects of foot orthosis on clinical conditions
- 40.4 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 41. Ankle-Foot Orthoses and Rocker Bottom Shoes
- Abstract
- 41.1 Introduction
- 41.2 Ankle-foot orthoses
- 41.3 Rocker bottom shoes
- 41.4 Roll-over shape
- 41.5 Patient populations
- 41.6 Design and prescription of ankle-foot orthosis
- 41.7 Design and prescription of rocker bottom shoes
- 41.8 Variations on materials
- 41.9 New designs
- 41.10 Sport applications
- 41.11 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 42. Diabetic Footwear
- Abstract
- 42.1 Introduction
- 42.2 Foot biomechanics and offloading
- 42.3 The biomechanical effect of diabetic footwear and offloading devices
- 42.4 Footwear and offloading for ulcer healing
- 42.5 Diabetic footwear for ulcer prevention
- 42.6 Footwear and offloading adherence
- 42.7 Other considerations
- 42.8 Future research
- 42.9 Conclusions
- References
- Chapter 43. Reconstructions for Adult-acquired Flatfoot Deformity
- Abstract
- 43.1 Introduction
- 43.2 Hindfoot valgus
- 43.3 Forefoot external rotation
- 43.4 Sag at the talonavicular joint
- 43.5 Failure of the posterior tibial tendon
- 43.6 Gastrocnemius and Achilles tightness
- 43.7 Medial arch eversion
- 43.8 Special considerations
- 43.9 Future biomechanical studies and conclusion
- References
- Chapter 44. Cavus Foot Reconstructions
- Abstract
- 44.1 Introduction
- 44.2 Etiology
- 44.3 Clinical presentation and associated pathology
- 44.4 Physical exam
- 44.5 Imaging
- 44.6 Biomechanical changes of pes cavus
- 44.7 Conservative management
- 44.8 Surgical management
- 44.9 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 45. Biomechanics of Hindfoot Fusions
- Abstract
- 45.1 Introduction
- 45.2 Complex hindfoot biomechanics
- 45.3 Conditions that may require hindfoot fusion
- 45.4 Presurgical assessment
- 45.5 Imaging
- 45.6 Goals in treatment
- 45.7 Corrective options
- 45.8 Areas of future interest
- References
- Chapter 46. Biomechanics of Foot and Ankle Fixation
- Abstract
- 46.1 Introduction
- 46.2 Screws
- 46.3 Plates
- 46.4 Post and screw constructs
- 46.5 Nails
- 46.6 Beams
- 46.7 Areas of future research
- References
- Chapter 47. Ankle Arthroplasty and Ankle Arthrodesis
- Abstract
- 47.1 Introduction
- 47.2 Brief description and history of surgical techniques
- 47.3 Biomechanical factors in presurgical assessment and consideration of arthroplasty or arthrodesis
- 47.4 Biomechanical considerations/complications of arthroplasty or arthrodesis
- 47.5 Biomechanical outcomes
- 47.6 Clinical outcomes
- 47.7 Areas of future biomechanical research
- References
- Chapter 48. Prosthetic Feet
- Abstract
- 48.1 Introduction
- 48.2 Prescription and expected use of prosthetic feet
- 48.3 Form of prosthetic feet
- 48.4 Function of prosthetic feet
- 48.5 Future prosthetic foot research
- References
- Index
- Edition: 1
- Published: December 5, 2022
- Imprint: Academic Press
- No. of pages: 812
- Language: English
- Paperback ISBN: 9780128154496
- eBook ISBN: 9780128154373
WL
William Ledoux
Associate Professor at Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLIMB) at the University of Washington
Dr. Ledoux's research has been devoted to preventing limb loss, either functionally or anatomically. He has 18 years professional experience in this research field. He has used CT, MRI, motion analysis, and more recently, a custom developed biplane fluoroscope, to quantify reduced lower limb function (i.e., functional limb loss) in different foot types (flat feet and high arched) compared to neutrally aligned feet. He has studied the functional aspects of various orthopedic foot maladies using the custom developed Robotic Gait Simulator. Additionally, he has explored functional differences between ankle fusion and ankle joint replacement for end-stage ankle arthritis. Anatomical limb loss prevention has involved quantifying the mechanical, histological and biochemical differences between normal and diabetic plantar soft tissue and foot ligaments. Dr. Ledoux has also developed a patient-specific finite element foot model, including customized anatomy and tissue properties, for the purpose of quantifying the effects of increased tissue stiffness and foot deformity on internal tissue stresses.
Affiliations and expertise
Associate Professor, Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLIMB), University of Washington, USAST
Scott Telfer
Scott Telfer is a Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Orthopaedics & Sports Medicine at the University of Washington, Seattle with affiliate positions at the Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound, Seattle, and the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle. He has spent the last 10 years studying the biomechanics of the foot and ankle with a focus on orthotic interventions, computational simulation, and measurement technologies.
Affiliations and expertise
Department of Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA,
United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA,
United States; RR&D Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System,
Seattle, WA, United StatesRead Foot and Ankle Biomechanics on ScienceDirect