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Flow Assurance in Pipelines
A Reference Guide
- 1st Edition - October 1, 2024
- Authors: Saeid Mokhatab, Juan Manzano-Ruiz, Antonin Chapoy, Jonathan J. Wylde
- Language: English
- Paperback ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 6 1 0 9 - 7
- eBook ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 9 3 8 9 - 0
Flow Assurance in Pipelines: A Reference Guide is a comprehensive resource that delivers applied modeling and management engineering approaches that are supported by a helpful a… Read more
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Request a sales quoteFlow Assurance in Pipelines: A Reference Guide is a comprehensive resource that delivers applied modeling and management engineering approaches that are supported by a helpful appendix of today’s computer software programs for practical application. Many environmental factors and solutions are offered, including produced water disposal, GHG emissions at plants, and commissioning issues during dewatering operations. Supported by impactful flow charts and practical case studies, this book gives pipeline engineers a resource for sustainable and more advanced operations.
- Helps readers understand engineering practices and operations in flow stability, integrity, and deliverability
- Provides tactics on how to improve environmental safety with mitigation on GHG emissions from topsides and processing plants, as well as prevention around flaring during blowdown
- Presents impactful flow charts and case studies in several key chapters
Pipeline engineers, production engineer, flow assurance engineer, petroleum engineers, natural gas engineers
Part I - Fundamentals
1. Pipeline Transportation of Hydrocarbons
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Oil and Gas Production
1.2.1 Reservoir Boundary Conditions
1.2.2 Well Nodal Analysis
1.2.3 Reservoir Decline
1.2.4 Reservoir Pressure Maintenance
1.2.5 Produced Water
1.2.6 Increment of Gas-Oil Ratio
1.2.7 Delivery Point Boundary Condition
1.2.8 Upstream Processing
1.2.9 Production Delivery to Downstream Facilities
1.2.10 Produced Water Disposal
1.2.11 Chemical Injection Umbilical
1.2.12 Midstream Products
1.3 Well’s Production String
1.3.1 Vertical and Deviated Wells
1.3.2 Horizontal Wells
1.3.3 Well Clusters and Manifolds
1.4 Flowlines and Gathering Systems
1.4.1 Flowlines
1.4.2 Gathering System
1.4.3 Risers
1.4.4 Test Line
1.5 Export Pipelines
1.5.1 Gas Pipelines
1.5.2 Crude Oil Pipelines
1.5.3 Water Injection Lines
1.6 Offshore and Onshore Pipelines
1.6.1 Environmental Conditions
1.6.2 Bathymetry and Terrain Profile
1.7 Pipeline Construction
1.8 Pipeline Maintenance
1.9 References
2. PVT and Phase Behavior of Petroleum Fluids
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fluid Composition
2.3 Phase Behaviour
2.3.1 Pure Component
2.3.2 Binary Mixtures
2.3.3 Multicomponent Fluids
2.4 Classification of Petroleum Fluids
2.4.1 Oil Systems
2.4.2 Retrograde Condensate Gas
2.4.3 Wet and Dry Gas
2.5 Compositional Analysis, PVT Experiments and Correlations
2.5.1 Definitions
2.5.2 Compositional Analysis
2.5.3 PVT Experiments
2.5.3.1 Flash Vaporization
2.5.3.2 Differential Liberation
2.5.3.3 Separator Tests
2.5.3.4 Constant Volume Depletion
2.5.4 Black Oil Correlations
2.5.4.1 Bubble Point Pressure
2.5.4.2 Oil Formation Volume Factor
2.5.4.3 Solution Gas Oil Ratio
2.5.4.4 Oil Viscosity
2.6 Phase Equilibria and Equations of State
2.6.1 Equilibrium Calculations
2.6.2 Cubic Equations of State
2.6.3 Other Equations of State
2.6.3.1 Statistical Associating Fluids Theory
2.6.3.2 Cubic Plus-Association Approach
2.6.3.3 Multiparameters Equation of State
2.6.4 Multiphase Isothermal Flash
2.7 Fluid Characterization
2.7.1 Critical and Physical Properties Estimation
2.7.1.1 Critical Properties Estimation
2.7.1.2 Molecular Weight Estimation
2.7.1.3 Acentric Factor Estimation
2.7.1.4 Characterization Methods based on PNA Determination
2.7.1.5 Method Selection
2.7.2 Splitting and Lumping Processes
2.7.2.1 Splitting Process
2.7.2.2 Lumping Process
2.8 Physical and Transport Properties
2.8.1 Density
2.8.2 Enthalpy and Heat Capacity
2.8.3 Joule-Thomson Coefficient
2.8.4 Speed of Sound
2.8.5 Viscosity
2.8.5.1 Hydrocarbon and Gas Viscosities
2.8.5.2 Water and Produced Water Viscosities
2.8.5.3 Oil–Water Emulsion Viscosities
2.8.6 Thermal Conductivity
2.8.7 Interfacial Tension / Surface Tension
2.8.7.1 Gas–Oil Surface Tension
2.8.7.2 Oil-Water Surface Tension and Gas-Water Surface Tension
2.9 References
3. Hydrocarbon Flow
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Single-Phase One-Dimensional Flow for Uniform Diameter Pipeline
3.2.1 Continuity Equation
3.2.2 Momentum Equation
3.2.3 Friction Head Term
3.2.4 Energy Equation
3.3 Two-Phase Flow
3.3.1 Two-Phase Flow Occurrence During Hydrocarbon Transportation
3.3.2 Two-Phase Flow Terminology
3.3.3 Two-Phase Flow Conservation Equations - Integral Models
3.3.3.1 Mass Conservation
3.3.3.2 Momentum Conservation
3.3.3.3 Energy Conservation
3.3.4 Flow Patterns
3.3.4.1 Gas-Liquid Flow
3.3.5 Two-Phase Flow Conservation Equations – Differential Models
3.3.5.1 Homogeneous Equilibrium Model
3.3.5.2 Drift-Flux Model 3.3.5.3 Two-Fluid Model
3.3.5.4 Mixture Flow (Separate Flow) Model
3.3.5.5 Mechanistic Models
3.3.5.6 Beggs and Brill Model
3.3.5.7 Brill and Mukherjee Model
3.3.5.8 Hasan and Kabir Model
3.3.6 Heat Transfer in Pipe
3.3.6.1 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3.6.2 External Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3.6.3 Buried Pipelines
3.3.6.4 Insulation Materials and Coatings
3.3.6.5 Active Pipeline Heating
3.3.7 Thermo-Hydraulic Simulations Workflow
3.4 References
4. Flow Assurance Concept
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Importance of Flow Assurance
4.3 Flow Assurance Principal Constraints
4.4 Flow Assurance Tasks and Workflow
4.4.1 Pipeline Design
4.4.2 Operation
4.4.2.1 Normal Operation
4.4.2.2 Transient Operations
4.4.2.3 Safe Operation
4.4.2.4 Environmental Concerns
4.5 Flow Assurance Work Process
4.5.1 Pre-Work
4.5.1.1 Fluid Sampling
4.5.1.2 Laboratory Analyses
4.5.1.3 Concept Definition
4.5.2 Scenarios Definition
4.6 Flow Assurance Strategies
4.6.1 Scenario Modelling
4.6.2 Operability Assurance
4.6.2.1 Prediction
4.6.2.2 Prevention and Mitigation
4.6.2.3 Remediation
4.6.2.4 Optimization
4.7 Flow Assurance Outlook
4.8 References
Part II - Fluid Related Risks
5. Hydrates
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hydrate Thermodynamics and Structures
5.2.1 Gas Hydrate Formation and Stability Zone
5.2.2 Where Can Gas Hydrates Form?
5.2.3 Common Structures of Gas Hydrates
5.2.4 Hydrate Formers
5.2.5 Other Hydrate Structures and Structure Transition
5.2.6 Hydration Number
5.3 Water Content Determination of Natural Gas System
5.4 Predicting the Hydrate Stability Zone and Phase Equilibria
5.4.1 Hand Calculation Methods
5.4.2 Computer Aided – Thermodynamic Modelling
5.5 Hydrate Prevention Techniques
5.5.1 Water Removal
5.5.2 Pipeline System Depressurization
5.5.3 Thermal Methods
5.5.4 Chemical Methods
5.5.4.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors
5.5.4.2 Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors
5.6 References
6. Petroleum Waxes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 What is Petroleum Wax?
6.2.1 Wax Appearance Temperature vs. Wax Disappearance Temperature
6.2.2 Pour Point
6.2.3 Wax Precipitation and Deposition
6.3 Wax Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Fluids
6.4 WAT / WDT Measurement
6.5 Thermodynamic of Wax Precipitation
6.5.1 Thermodynamic Modelling
6.5.2 High-Pressure Correction
6.5.3 Fluid Characterization
6.6 Viscosity of Oil and Wax Suspension
6.7 Wax Management and Remediation
6.7.1 Heating
6.7.2 Insulation
6.7.3 Solvents
6.7.4 Wax crystal modifier
6.7.5 Mechanical
6.8 References
7. Asphaltene
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What Are Asphaltenes?
7.2.1 Asphaltene Definition
7.2.2 Asphaltene Composition, Structure and Properties
7.2.3 Manifestations of Asphaltenes in Crude Oil
7.3 Formation and Impact of Asphaltene Deposits
7.3.1 Flocculation and Deposition of Asphaltenes
7.3.2 Asphaltene Destabilising Factors
7.3.3 Problematic Asphaltenic Crudes
7.3.4 Deposition Downhole and in the Reservoir
7.3.5 Deposition in Subsea and Topsides Production Systems
7.3.6 Asphaltene Impacts on Processing Systems
7.4 Asphaltene Stability Prediction
7.4.1 Influences on Asphaltene Prediction
7.4.2 Prediction Workflow
7.4.3 Reservoir Fluid Sampling
7.4.4 Experimental Testing for Asphaltene Stability
7.4.4.1 Simple Screening Techniques
7.4.4.2 Live Oil Asphaltene Onset Pressure Testing
7.4.4.3 Live Oil Asphaltene Deposition Tests
7.4.5 Asphaltene Precipitation Modelling
7.4.6 Asphaltene Deposition Modelling
7.5 Asphaltene Prevention and Remediation
7.5.1 Asphaltene Prevention
7.5.1.1 Non-Chemical Prevention
7.5.1.2 Chemical Prevention
7.5.1.3 Chemical Prevention Application Methods
7.5.1.4 Chemical Screening and Selection
7.5.2 Asphaltene Remediation
7.5.2.1 Non-Chemical Remediation
7.5.2.2 Chemical Remediation
7.5.2.3 Field Case Study
7.6 References
8. Scale
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Produced Water
8.2.1 Definitions and Significance
8.2.2 Characterization, Composition, and Sources of Water
8.2.2.1 The Chemistry of Formation Water
8.2.2.2 The Chemistry of Seawater
8.3 Scale Formation
8.3.1 Types of Mineral Scale and Basic Formation Mechanisms
8.3.1.1 Sulfates
8.3.1.2 Carbonates
8.3.1.3 Sulfides
8.3.1.4 Black Powder
8.3.1.5 Other Scale Types (Halite and Silica)
8.3.2 Crystal Nucleation and Growth Mechanisms
8.3.2.1 Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Nucleation
8.3.2.2 Crystal Growth
8.3.2.3 Adsorption
8.3.2.4 Deposition
8.4 Scale Precipitation Prediction
8.4.1 Why Use Scale Prediction?
8.4.2 Input and Output Information Data
8.4.3 Mineral Solubility Data
8.4.4 Shortcomings and Limitations
8.5 Operational Problems Due to Scales
8.5.1 Magnitude of the Problem
8.5.2 Scale Formation in a Multiphase Environment
8.5.3 Types of Issue 8.6 Scale Prevention and Remediation
8.6.1 Overview and Dealing with Scale – Strategies
8.6.2 Prevention
8.6.2.1 Mechanical and Unconventional Scale Prevention
8.6.2.2 Chemical Scale Inhibition
8.6.2.3 Chelation Chemistry
8.6.2.4 Scale Inhibitor Application Methods
8.6.2.5 Product Selection and Evaluation
8.6.2.6 Field Performance Monitoring
8.6.3 Remediation
8.6.3.1 Mechanical vs. Chemical
8.6.3.2 Scale Dissolvers
8.7 References
9. Naphthenates and Carboxylates
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Definition of Naphthenates and Carboxylates
9.1.2 Origin of Acidic Species
9.1.3 Structural Determination
9.2 Operational Challenges
9.2.1 Carboxylate Emulsions
9.2.2 Naphthenate Scales
9.2.3 Calcium in Crude
9.3 Mitigation Methods
9.3.1 Non-Chemical Methods
9.3.2 Chemical Methods
9.3.2.1 Removal
9.3.2.2 Prevention
9.4 Case Histories
9.5 References
Part III - Flow Related Risks
10. Flow Stability
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Flow Instability
10.3 Flow Pattern Instabilities
10.3.1 Stratified to Non-Stratified Flow Pattern Transition in Horizontal Flowlines
10.3.2 Transitions from Annular Flow in Horizontal Flowlines
10.3.3 Instability of Stratified-Smooth to Stratified-Wavy Pattern
10.3.4 Transition Between Dispersed Bubble and Intermittent Horizontal Flow
10.4 Slugging 10.4.1 Hydrodynamic Slugging
10.4.2 Terrain-Induced and Severe Slugging
10.4.3 Operationally Induced Slugging and Surging
10.5 Prediction of Slug Characteristics
10.6 Prevention and Control of Slugging
10.7 Examples of Slugging Simulation
10.7.1 Hydrodynamic Slugging of Live Oil Flow Through Horizontal Flowline
10.7.2 Severe Slugging in a Pipeline/Riser System
10.7.3 Transient Study of Severe Slugging at Riser
10.7.4 Surging Due to Pigging at Onshore Facilities
10.7.5 Choke Valve Control to Mitigate Slugging
10.8 References
11. Flow Integrity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Pipeline Corrosion
11.3 Modes of Corrosion
11.3.1 Galvanic Corrosion
11.3.2 Stress-Corrosion Cracking
11.3.3 Pitting Corrosion
11.3.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement
11.3.5 Sulfide Stress Cracking
11.3.6 Cavitation Corrosion
11.3.7 Fatigue Corrosion
11.3.8 Microbial Induced Corrosion
11.4 Sweet Corrosion
11.4.1 Sweet Corrosion Models
11.5 Sour Corrosion
11.6 Corrosion in Flowlines
11.7 Corrosion in Pipelines
11.7.1 Corrosion in Oil Pipelines
11.7.2 Corrosion in Gas Pipelines
11.8 Erosion
11.9 Erosional Velocity
11.10 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.11 System Inspection
11.12 Corrosion and Erosion Prevention and Mitigation
11.13 References
12. Flow Deliverability
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Upstream Production Considerations
12.3 Flowline Sizing
12.3.1 Life of Field/Asset Design
12.3.2 Design and Operational Constraints
12.3.3 Risk of Erosion and Velocity Limits
12.3.4 Liquid Hold-up Management and Slugging
12.3.5 Optimum Size and Operating Envelope
12.3.6 Artificial Lift
12.4 Downstream Production Considerations
12.4.1 Host Facility Requirements
12.4.2 Emulsions Treatment
12.4.3 Foaming Control
12.5 References
13. Pipeline Operations Guidelines
13.1 Introduction 1
3.2 Normal or Steady-State Operation
13.2.1 Impacts of Production Profile on Normal Operation
13.2.2 Chemical Injection Philosophy
13.2.3 Production Support (Artificial Lift)
13.2.3.1 Gas Lift
13.2.3.2 Hydraulic and Electric Submersible Pumps
13.2.3.3 Multiphase Pumps
13.2.3.4 Subsea Compression
13.3 Transient Operations
13.3.1 Pre-Commissioning, Commissioning and First Start-up
13.3.2 Production Shutdown and Restart
13.3.3 Turn-down and Ramp-up
13.3.4 Pigging
13.3.5 Flushing and Hot Oiling
13.3.6 Depressurisation and Blowdown
13.4 Pipeline Online Operating Tools
13.5 References
14. Flow Assurance Simulation Studies
Appendices
Appendix A. Critical Properties Estimation Methods
Appendix B. Goossens Correlation for Molecular Weight Measurement
Appendix C. Acentric Factor Estimation Methods
Appendix D. PNA Based Estimation Methods
Appendix E. Splitting Schemes
Appendix F. Whitson Lumping Scheme
Appendix G. Flow Assurance Software Tools
1. Pipeline Transportation of Hydrocarbons
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Oil and Gas Production
1.2.1 Reservoir Boundary Conditions
1.2.2 Well Nodal Analysis
1.2.3 Reservoir Decline
1.2.4 Reservoir Pressure Maintenance
1.2.5 Produced Water
1.2.6 Increment of Gas-Oil Ratio
1.2.7 Delivery Point Boundary Condition
1.2.8 Upstream Processing
1.2.9 Production Delivery to Downstream Facilities
1.2.10 Produced Water Disposal
1.2.11 Chemical Injection Umbilical
1.2.12 Midstream Products
1.3 Well’s Production String
1.3.1 Vertical and Deviated Wells
1.3.2 Horizontal Wells
1.3.3 Well Clusters and Manifolds
1.4 Flowlines and Gathering Systems
1.4.1 Flowlines
1.4.2 Gathering System
1.4.3 Risers
1.4.4 Test Line
1.5 Export Pipelines
1.5.1 Gas Pipelines
1.5.2 Crude Oil Pipelines
1.5.3 Water Injection Lines
1.6 Offshore and Onshore Pipelines
1.6.1 Environmental Conditions
1.6.2 Bathymetry and Terrain Profile
1.7 Pipeline Construction
1.8 Pipeline Maintenance
1.9 References
2. PVT and Phase Behavior of Petroleum Fluids
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fluid Composition
2.3 Phase Behaviour
2.3.1 Pure Component
2.3.2 Binary Mixtures
2.3.3 Multicomponent Fluids
2.4 Classification of Petroleum Fluids
2.4.1 Oil Systems
2.4.2 Retrograde Condensate Gas
2.4.3 Wet and Dry Gas
2.5 Compositional Analysis, PVT Experiments and Correlations
2.5.1 Definitions
2.5.2 Compositional Analysis
2.5.3 PVT Experiments
2.5.3.1 Flash Vaporization
2.5.3.2 Differential Liberation
2.5.3.3 Separator Tests
2.5.3.4 Constant Volume Depletion
2.5.4 Black Oil Correlations
2.5.4.1 Bubble Point Pressure
2.5.4.2 Oil Formation Volume Factor
2.5.4.3 Solution Gas Oil Ratio
2.5.4.4 Oil Viscosity
2.6 Phase Equilibria and Equations of State
2.6.1 Equilibrium Calculations
2.6.2 Cubic Equations of State
2.6.3 Other Equations of State
2.6.3.1 Statistical Associating Fluids Theory
2.6.3.2 Cubic Plus-Association Approach
2.6.3.3 Multiparameters Equation of State
2.6.4 Multiphase Isothermal Flash
2.7 Fluid Characterization
2.7.1 Critical and Physical Properties Estimation
2.7.1.1 Critical Properties Estimation
2.7.1.2 Molecular Weight Estimation
2.7.1.3 Acentric Factor Estimation
2.7.1.4 Characterization Methods based on PNA Determination
2.7.1.5 Method Selection
2.7.2 Splitting and Lumping Processes
2.7.2.1 Splitting Process
2.7.2.2 Lumping Process
2.8 Physical and Transport Properties
2.8.1 Density
2.8.2 Enthalpy and Heat Capacity
2.8.3 Joule-Thomson Coefficient
2.8.4 Speed of Sound
2.8.5 Viscosity
2.8.5.1 Hydrocarbon and Gas Viscosities
2.8.5.2 Water and Produced Water Viscosities
2.8.5.3 Oil–Water Emulsion Viscosities
2.8.6 Thermal Conductivity
2.8.7 Interfacial Tension / Surface Tension
2.8.7.1 Gas–Oil Surface Tension
2.8.7.2 Oil-Water Surface Tension and Gas-Water Surface Tension
2.9 References
3. Hydrocarbon Flow
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Single-Phase One-Dimensional Flow for Uniform Diameter Pipeline
3.2.1 Continuity Equation
3.2.2 Momentum Equation
3.2.3 Friction Head Term
3.2.4 Energy Equation
3.3 Two-Phase Flow
3.3.1 Two-Phase Flow Occurrence During Hydrocarbon Transportation
3.3.2 Two-Phase Flow Terminology
3.3.3 Two-Phase Flow Conservation Equations - Integral Models
3.3.3.1 Mass Conservation
3.3.3.2 Momentum Conservation
3.3.3.3 Energy Conservation
3.3.4 Flow Patterns
3.3.4.1 Gas-Liquid Flow
3.3.5 Two-Phase Flow Conservation Equations – Differential Models
3.3.5.1 Homogeneous Equilibrium Model
3.3.5.2 Drift-Flux Model 3.3.5.3 Two-Fluid Model
3.3.5.4 Mixture Flow (Separate Flow) Model
3.3.5.5 Mechanistic Models
3.3.5.6 Beggs and Brill Model
3.3.5.7 Brill and Mukherjee Model
3.3.5.8 Hasan and Kabir Model
3.3.6 Heat Transfer in Pipe
3.3.6.1 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3.6.2 External Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3.6.3 Buried Pipelines
3.3.6.4 Insulation Materials and Coatings
3.3.6.5 Active Pipeline Heating
3.3.7 Thermo-Hydraulic Simulations Workflow
3.4 References
4. Flow Assurance Concept
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Importance of Flow Assurance
4.3 Flow Assurance Principal Constraints
4.4 Flow Assurance Tasks and Workflow
4.4.1 Pipeline Design
4.4.2 Operation
4.4.2.1 Normal Operation
4.4.2.2 Transient Operations
4.4.2.3 Safe Operation
4.4.2.4 Environmental Concerns
4.5 Flow Assurance Work Process
4.5.1 Pre-Work
4.5.1.1 Fluid Sampling
4.5.1.2 Laboratory Analyses
4.5.1.3 Concept Definition
4.5.2 Scenarios Definition
4.6 Flow Assurance Strategies
4.6.1 Scenario Modelling
4.6.2 Operability Assurance
4.6.2.1 Prediction
4.6.2.2 Prevention and Mitigation
4.6.2.3 Remediation
4.6.2.4 Optimization
4.7 Flow Assurance Outlook
4.8 References
Part II - Fluid Related Risks
5. Hydrates
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hydrate Thermodynamics and Structures
5.2.1 Gas Hydrate Formation and Stability Zone
5.2.2 Where Can Gas Hydrates Form?
5.2.3 Common Structures of Gas Hydrates
5.2.4 Hydrate Formers
5.2.5 Other Hydrate Structures and Structure Transition
5.2.6 Hydration Number
5.3 Water Content Determination of Natural Gas System
5.4 Predicting the Hydrate Stability Zone and Phase Equilibria
5.4.1 Hand Calculation Methods
5.4.2 Computer Aided – Thermodynamic Modelling
5.5 Hydrate Prevention Techniques
5.5.1 Water Removal
5.5.2 Pipeline System Depressurization
5.5.3 Thermal Methods
5.5.4 Chemical Methods
5.5.4.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors
5.5.4.2 Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors
5.6 References
6. Petroleum Waxes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 What is Petroleum Wax?
6.2.1 Wax Appearance Temperature vs. Wax Disappearance Temperature
6.2.2 Pour Point
6.2.3 Wax Precipitation and Deposition
6.3 Wax Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Fluids
6.4 WAT / WDT Measurement
6.5 Thermodynamic of Wax Precipitation
6.5.1 Thermodynamic Modelling
6.5.2 High-Pressure Correction
6.5.3 Fluid Characterization
6.6 Viscosity of Oil and Wax Suspension
6.7 Wax Management and Remediation
6.7.1 Heating
6.7.2 Insulation
6.7.3 Solvents
6.7.4 Wax crystal modifier
6.7.5 Mechanical
6.8 References
7. Asphaltene
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What Are Asphaltenes?
7.2.1 Asphaltene Definition
7.2.2 Asphaltene Composition, Structure and Properties
7.2.3 Manifestations of Asphaltenes in Crude Oil
7.3 Formation and Impact of Asphaltene Deposits
7.3.1 Flocculation and Deposition of Asphaltenes
7.3.2 Asphaltene Destabilising Factors
7.3.3 Problematic Asphaltenic Crudes
7.3.4 Deposition Downhole and in the Reservoir
7.3.5 Deposition in Subsea and Topsides Production Systems
7.3.6 Asphaltene Impacts on Processing Systems
7.4 Asphaltene Stability Prediction
7.4.1 Influences on Asphaltene Prediction
7.4.2 Prediction Workflow
7.4.3 Reservoir Fluid Sampling
7.4.4 Experimental Testing for Asphaltene Stability
7.4.4.1 Simple Screening Techniques
7.4.4.2 Live Oil Asphaltene Onset Pressure Testing
7.4.4.3 Live Oil Asphaltene Deposition Tests
7.4.5 Asphaltene Precipitation Modelling
7.4.6 Asphaltene Deposition Modelling
7.5 Asphaltene Prevention and Remediation
7.5.1 Asphaltene Prevention
7.5.1.1 Non-Chemical Prevention
7.5.1.2 Chemical Prevention
7.5.1.3 Chemical Prevention Application Methods
7.5.1.4 Chemical Screening and Selection
7.5.2 Asphaltene Remediation
7.5.2.1 Non-Chemical Remediation
7.5.2.2 Chemical Remediation
7.5.2.3 Field Case Study
7.6 References
8. Scale
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Produced Water
8.2.1 Definitions and Significance
8.2.2 Characterization, Composition, and Sources of Water
8.2.2.1 The Chemistry of Formation Water
8.2.2.2 The Chemistry of Seawater
8.3 Scale Formation
8.3.1 Types of Mineral Scale and Basic Formation Mechanisms
8.3.1.1 Sulfates
8.3.1.2 Carbonates
8.3.1.3 Sulfides
8.3.1.4 Black Powder
8.3.1.5 Other Scale Types (Halite and Silica)
8.3.2 Crystal Nucleation and Growth Mechanisms
8.3.2.1 Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Nucleation
8.3.2.2 Crystal Growth
8.3.2.3 Adsorption
8.3.2.4 Deposition
8.4 Scale Precipitation Prediction
8.4.1 Why Use Scale Prediction?
8.4.2 Input and Output Information Data
8.4.3 Mineral Solubility Data
8.4.4 Shortcomings and Limitations
8.5 Operational Problems Due to Scales
8.5.1 Magnitude of the Problem
8.5.2 Scale Formation in a Multiphase Environment
8.5.3 Types of Issue 8.6 Scale Prevention and Remediation
8.6.1 Overview and Dealing with Scale – Strategies
8.6.2 Prevention
8.6.2.1 Mechanical and Unconventional Scale Prevention
8.6.2.2 Chemical Scale Inhibition
8.6.2.3 Chelation Chemistry
8.6.2.4 Scale Inhibitor Application Methods
8.6.2.5 Product Selection and Evaluation
8.6.2.6 Field Performance Monitoring
8.6.3 Remediation
8.6.3.1 Mechanical vs. Chemical
8.6.3.2 Scale Dissolvers
8.7 References
9. Naphthenates and Carboxylates
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Definition of Naphthenates and Carboxylates
9.1.2 Origin of Acidic Species
9.1.3 Structural Determination
9.2 Operational Challenges
9.2.1 Carboxylate Emulsions
9.2.2 Naphthenate Scales
9.2.3 Calcium in Crude
9.3 Mitigation Methods
9.3.1 Non-Chemical Methods
9.3.2 Chemical Methods
9.3.2.1 Removal
9.3.2.2 Prevention
9.4 Case Histories
9.5 References
Part III - Flow Related Risks
10. Flow Stability
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Flow Instability
10.3 Flow Pattern Instabilities
10.3.1 Stratified to Non-Stratified Flow Pattern Transition in Horizontal Flowlines
10.3.2 Transitions from Annular Flow in Horizontal Flowlines
10.3.3 Instability of Stratified-Smooth to Stratified-Wavy Pattern
10.3.4 Transition Between Dispersed Bubble and Intermittent Horizontal Flow
10.4 Slugging 10.4.1 Hydrodynamic Slugging
10.4.2 Terrain-Induced and Severe Slugging
10.4.3 Operationally Induced Slugging and Surging
10.5 Prediction of Slug Characteristics
10.6 Prevention and Control of Slugging
10.7 Examples of Slugging Simulation
10.7.1 Hydrodynamic Slugging of Live Oil Flow Through Horizontal Flowline
10.7.2 Severe Slugging in a Pipeline/Riser System
10.7.3 Transient Study of Severe Slugging at Riser
10.7.4 Surging Due to Pigging at Onshore Facilities
10.7.5 Choke Valve Control to Mitigate Slugging
10.8 References
11. Flow Integrity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Pipeline Corrosion
11.3 Modes of Corrosion
11.3.1 Galvanic Corrosion
11.3.2 Stress-Corrosion Cracking
11.3.3 Pitting Corrosion
11.3.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement
11.3.5 Sulfide Stress Cracking
11.3.6 Cavitation Corrosion
11.3.7 Fatigue Corrosion
11.3.8 Microbial Induced Corrosion
11.4 Sweet Corrosion
11.4.1 Sweet Corrosion Models
11.5 Sour Corrosion
11.6 Corrosion in Flowlines
11.7 Corrosion in Pipelines
11.7.1 Corrosion in Oil Pipelines
11.7.2 Corrosion in Gas Pipelines
11.8 Erosion
11.9 Erosional Velocity
11.10 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.11 System Inspection
11.12 Corrosion and Erosion Prevention and Mitigation
11.13 References
12. Flow Deliverability
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Upstream Production Considerations
12.3 Flowline Sizing
12.3.1 Life of Field/Asset Design
12.3.2 Design and Operational Constraints
12.3.3 Risk of Erosion and Velocity Limits
12.3.4 Liquid Hold-up Management and Slugging
12.3.5 Optimum Size and Operating Envelope
12.3.6 Artificial Lift
12.4 Downstream Production Considerations
12.4.1 Host Facility Requirements
12.4.2 Emulsions Treatment
12.4.3 Foaming Control
12.5 References
13. Pipeline Operations Guidelines
13.1 Introduction 1
3.2 Normal or Steady-State Operation
13.2.1 Impacts of Production Profile on Normal Operation
13.2.2 Chemical Injection Philosophy
13.2.3 Production Support (Artificial Lift)
13.2.3.1 Gas Lift
13.2.3.2 Hydraulic and Electric Submersible Pumps
13.2.3.3 Multiphase Pumps
13.2.3.4 Subsea Compression
13.3 Transient Operations
13.3.1 Pre-Commissioning, Commissioning and First Start-up
13.3.2 Production Shutdown and Restart
13.3.3 Turn-down and Ramp-up
13.3.4 Pigging
13.3.5 Flushing and Hot Oiling
13.3.6 Depressurisation and Blowdown
13.4 Pipeline Online Operating Tools
13.5 References
14. Flow Assurance Simulation Studies
Appendices
Appendix A. Critical Properties Estimation Methods
Appendix B. Goossens Correlation for Molecular Weight Measurement
Appendix C. Acentric Factor Estimation Methods
Appendix D. PNA Based Estimation Methods
Appendix E. Splitting Schemes
Appendix F. Whitson Lumping Scheme
Appendix G. Flow Assurance Software Tools
- No. of pages: 350
- Language: English
- Edition: 1
- Published: October 1, 2024
- Imprint: Elsevier
- Paperback ISBN: 9780323961097
SM
Saeid Mokhatab
Saeid Mokhatab is recognized globally as a process technology expert in the fields of natural gas processing and LNG. For over two decades, he has been actively involved in different aspects of several large-scale gas processing and LNG projects, from conceptual design through plant startup and operations support. He has contributed to the understanding of gas processing & LNG knowledge, practices, and technologies through 300 technical papers and 3 reference books (published by Elsevier in the US), which are widely read and highly respected. He founded the Elsevier peer-reviewed Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering and has served on the editorial/advisory boards of leading professional publications pertaining to gas processing and LNG. He has also been an active member of several professional societies, including the SPE and GPA Europe, and has served on the technical program/advisory committee of many acclaimed gas processing conferences worldwide. As a result of his outstanding work in the natural gas industry, he has received a number of international awards and medals and has been listed in highly prestigious biographical directories.
Affiliations and expertise
Gas Processing Consultant, CanadaJM
Juan Manzano-Ruiz
Dr. Juan J. Manzano-Ruiz has extensive international oil & gas field development experience over the past 40 years in shallow, deepwater and onshore Flow Assurance (FA), as a technical team lead, project manager, asset manager and R&D technical contributor. He is currently President of PetroConsulting and Associates, LLC. He was previously Manager of Flow Assurance for Bechtel and Technip. Juan earned a PHD in mechanical engineering, an MBA, a Master’s in mechanical engineering, and an undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering, all from MIT. Juan is also a Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.
Affiliations and expertise
PetroConsulting and Associates, TX, USAAC
Antonin Chapoy
Professor Antonin Chapoy is a Professorial Fellow at Heriot-Watt University, UK. Following completion of his PhD in Chemical Engineering (Paris School of Mines, France, 2004), he joined the Centre for Gas Hydrate Research (now the Hydrates, Flow Assurance & Phase Equilibria Research Group-HFAPE) at Heriot-Watt. He has over 20 years research experience of gas hydrate, hydrocarbon phase behaviour
and thermodynamics, and has managed a wide range of projects, predominately sponsored by industry. He is first or coauthor on over 200 refereed journals and conference publications primarily concerning gas hydrates, flow assurance, transport properties and water-hydrocarbon phase behaviour. Professor Chapoy is also an Associate Fellow with the Centre of Thermodynamics of Processes of Mines ParisTech.
Affiliations and expertise
Professorial Fellow, Heriot-Watt University, UKJW
Jonathan J. Wylde
Dr. Jonathan Wylde serves as the Technical Director at SPL in Houston, TX, USA, where he oversees the technical decision making and recommendations made by the flow assurance testing and engineering consultancy team, serving as the in-house subject matter expert for production chemistry. Prior to this, he spent 20 years at Clariant Oil and Mining Services, TX, USA, latterly as the Global Head of Innovation where he was responsible for global application development and innovation. Since joining Clariant in 2002 as a senior development chemist, he successfully contributed to innovation and development advancement across multiple Clariant Oil and Mining Services channels, including technical, operational, sales and business development.
Jonathan obtained a BSc (Hons) in Geology and a PhD in Physical Chemistry, both from the University of Bristol, UK. Over the past two decades, he has been extensively published in the peer reviewed literature, conference proceedings, book chapters, and patents across a wide range of production chemistry topics, many of which have been highly cited by the industry and academia. Dr. Wylde’s publication record of over 225 separate articles as well as activities with Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, has earned him an Honorary Associate Professorship. He is a member in good standing of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) for over 20 years and has served on its technical and program committees for the International Scale Conference, Oilfield Chemical Symposium, and Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition (ATCE); and currently serves as an Associate Editor for SPE Production & Operations Journal and as a Technical Editor for SPE JPT and the SPE Journal.
Affiliations and expertise
Technical Director, SPL, Houston, TX, USA