Comparative Vertebrate Morphology

Preface1 How We Got Here: Intellectual Background General Concepts of Vertebrate Evolution Comparative Morphology and Vertebrate Evolution Suggested Reading2 How We Got Here: Vertebrate Phylogeny Fishes Earliest Fossil Vertebrates — Agnatha First Fishes with True Jaws — Placodermi Cartilaginous Fishes — Chondrichthyes Bony Fishes — Osteichthyes Transition from Water to Land Amphibia Reptilia Development of Homeothermy Mammalia Aves Spatial and Temporal Diversity Embryological Development Suggested Reading3 Skeletal Components Vertebrate Skeletal Tissues Notochord Cartilage Bone Joints Suggested Reading4 Cranial Skeleton Cephalization Embryologic Development of the Head Skeleton The Neurocranium The Splanchnocranium The Dermatocranium A Generalized Vertebrate Skull, Amia calva The Bowfin Skull as a Functioning Unit Diversity of Vertebrate Skull Organization Agnatha Placodermi Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes-Actinopterygii Osteichthyes-Sarcopterygii Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia Suggested Reading5 Postcranial Skeleton Axial Skeleton: the Vertebral Column and Notochord Vertebral Development Diversity of Vertebral Structure Regionalization of the Vertebral Column Axial Skeleton: Ribs Axial Skeleton: Sternum Appendicular Skeleton Extrinsic Skeleton — the Pectoral Girdle Extrinsic Skeleton — the Pelvic Girdle Intrinsic Skeleton — Unpaired Appendages Intrinsic Skeleton — Paired Appendages Adaptiveness of the Tetrapod Appendicular Skeleton Suggested Reading6 Muscular Tissues Smooth Muscle Cell Structure Functional Characteristics Skeletal Muscles Cell Structure Other Structural Features of Skeletal Muscle Cells Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Excitation of Skeletal Muscles Striated Muscles as Organs Cardiac Muscles Suggested Reading7 Muscular System Ontogeny of Skeletal Muscles Axial Muscles Muscles of the Limbs (Appendicular Muscles) Gill Arch Muscles (Branchiomeric) Patterns of Later Muscular Differentiation Determining Muscle Homologies and Phylogenies Somatic Muscles: Axial Extrinsic Ocular Muscles Hypobranchial Muscles Trunk Musculature Somatic Muscles: Appendicular Branchiomeric Muscles Some Muscle Specializations Suggested Reading8 The Integument Development of the Integument Microscopic Structure Epidermis Dermis How Thick is a Layer? Integumentary Glands Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Scales and Denticles Placoid Denticles Scales of Ostracoderms and Placoderms Sarcopterygian Cosmoid Scales Ganoid Scales Cycloid and Ctenoid Scales Amphibian Scales Reptilian Scales Scales in Birds and Mammals Horns and Antlers Digital Tips Amphibians Amniotes Feathers Plumage Hair Color Coloration in Birds The Integument as a Organ System Suggested Reading9 Nervous Tissues Neurons Morphology of the Neuron Physiology of the Neuron Myelin Sheath The Synapse Terminology Exploring the Nervous System Reflexes Suggested Reading10 Sense Organs Fundamental Characteristics of Sense Organs Cutaneous Receptors Free Nerve Endings Encapsulated Nerve Endings Proprioceptors Chemoreceptors Olfactory Organs The Vomeronasal Organ of Jacobson Taste Organs Photoreceptors Lateral Eyes Median Eyes Ophidian Pit Organs The Acousticolateralis Receptors Embryonic Origin The Hair Cell The Lateral Line System The Inner Ear Fishes Middle Ear Auditory Inner Ear Tetrapods Details of Mammalian Cochlear Duct Suggested Reading11 Nervous System Structure Development Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves Mammals Nonmammals Cranial Nerves Somatic Motor Nerves, Corresponding to Ventral Roots of Agnathan Spinal Nerves Somatic Sensory, Visceral Sensory, and Visceral Motor Nerves, Corresponding to Agnathan Dorsal Roots Special Sensory Nerves Visceral Nervous System Mammalian Autonomic System Structure of the Brain The Suprasegmental Apparatus Suggested Reading12 Nervous Pathways Pathways of the Somatic Sensory System Mammals Nonmammalian Vertebrates Auditory Pathways Mammals Nonmammals Vestibular Pathways Visual Pathways Mammals Birds Reptiles, Amphibian, and Fishes Olfactory Pathways Mammals Nonmammalian Vertebrates Corticospinal System Extrapyramidal Motor System Mammals Nonmammalian Extrapyramidal Systems Cerebellar Pathways Mammals Nonmammals Final Common Pathway The Mammalian "Limbic Lobe" Mammalian Neocortex Suggested Reading13 Endocrines Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis Structure Hormones of the Pituitary Thyroid Gland Structure Hormones of the Thyroid Parathyroid Glands Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans Hormones of the Islets Adrenal Glands and Tissues Gastrointestinal Hormones Minor and Less Well Understood Endocrines Pineal Thymus Urophysis Angiotensin Reproductive Hormones Suggested Reading14 Digestive System Selective Factors in Evolution Development and General Structure Oral Cavity Tongue Teeth Development of Dentition Chondrichthyes Actinopterygians Sarcopterygians Tetrapods except Mammals Mammals Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Fishes Amphibians and Reptiles Birds Mammals Pyloric Sphincter Intestines Fishes Amphibians and Reptiles Birds Mammals Caudal Termination of the Alimentary Canal Pancreas Liver and Gallbladder Suggested Reading15 Respiratory System Gill Respiration in Fishes Teleosts Chondrichthyeans Cyclostomes The Gas Bladder Air Breathing in Fishes Are Lungs and Gas Bladders Homologous? Amphibian Respiration The Amphibian Lung Reptilian Respiration Avian Respiration Mammalian Respiration Sound Production Suggested Reading16 Circulatory System Formation of Blood (Hemopoiesis) Structure of Blood Vessels Vertebrate Heart Fishes (except Lungfish) Lungfish and Amphibians Reptiles Mammals and Birds Aortic Arches and Anterior Arteries Chondrichthyeans Teleosts Lungfish Amphibians Reptiles Mammals and Birds Summary Posterior Arteries Venous System Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds and Mammals Lymphatic System Suggested Reading17 Excretory and Water Balance System Ontogeny of Kidneys and Ducts The Holonephros The Opisthonephros The Metanephros Maintenance of Water Balance in Major Groups of Vertebrates Freshwater Fishes Marine Vertebrates Amphibians Reptiles and Birds Mammals The Urinary Bladder Suggested Reading18 Reproductive System The Gonads The Testis The Ovary The Reproductive Ducts Male Genital Ducts Female Genital Ducts Mechanisms Facilitating Union of Sperm and Egg External Fertilization Internal Fertilization Accessory Reproductive Glands Care of Eggs and Fetal Young Oviparous Forms Ovoviviparous Forms Viviparous Forms Endocrines and Sex in Mammals Hormones of the Gonads Hormones of the Pituitary Sexual Cycles Pregnancy and Birth Care of YoungEpilogueSuggested ReadingGlossaryIndex